2-Basic Principles of Heredity PDF

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2

Basic Principles of Heredity

2.1

Mendel: The Father of Genetics

The basic principles of genetics had been discovered by Johann Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). Mendel was born in what is now part of the Czech Republic. Although his parents were simple farmers with little money, he was able to achieve a sound education and was admitted to the Augustinian monastery in Brno in September 1843. After graduating from seminary, Mendel was ordained a priest and appointed to a teaching position in a local school. He excelled at teaching, and the abbot of the monastery recommended him for further study at the University of Vienna, which he attended from 1851 to 1853. There, Mendel enrolled in the newly opened Physics Institute and took courses in mathematics, chemistry, entomology, paleontology, botany, and plant physiology. It was probably here that Mendel acquired the scientific method, which he later applied so successfully to his genetics experiments. After 2 years of study in Vienna, Mendel returned to Brno, where he taught school and began his experimental work with pea plants. He conducted breeding experiments from 1856 to 1863 and presented his results publicly at meetings of the Brno Natural Science Society in 1865. Mendel’s paper from these lectures was published in 1866. In spite of widespread interest in heredity, the effect of his research on the scientific community was minimal. At the time, no one seems to have noticed that Mendel had discovered the basic principles of inheritance. The paper was read by few and apparently understood by no one until 1900, long after Mendel’s death. Meanwhile, Mendel tried unsuccessfully to repeat his observations with another plant species, Hieracium, which, it turns out, forms seeds without a true meiosis. Mendel knew nothing about meiosis, and the failure of these experiments must have represented a great disappointment to him, and he undoubtedly came to regard himself as a scientific failure. The significance of Mendel’s discovery was unappreciated until 1900, when three botanists—Hugo

de

Vries,

Erich

von

Tschermak,

and

Carl

Correns—began

independently conducting similar experiments with plants and arrived at conclusions similar to those of Mendel. Coming across Mendel’s paper, they interpreted their results in terms of his principles and drew attention to his pioneering work.

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2.2

Mendel’s Success

Mendel’s approach to the study of heredity was effective for several reasons. Foremost was his choice of experimental subject, the pea plant Pisum sativum (Figure 2.1), which offered clear advantages for genetic investigation. Mendel, however could easily succeed in formulating certain basic principles of heredity, for the following reasons:

Figure 2.1: Mendel used the pea plant Pisum sativum in his studies of heredity. He examined seven characteristics that appeared in the seeds and in plants grown from the seeds. (1)

The pea plant is easy to cultivate, and Mendel had the monastery garden and greenhouse at his disposal.

(2)

Peas grow relatively rapidly, completing an entire generation in a single growing season.

(3)

Pea plants also produce many offspring—their seeds—which allowed Mendel to detect meaningful mathematical ratios in the traits that he observed in the progeny.

(4)

The pea plant which Mendel chose for conducting experiments, is most ideal for controlled breeding, since it can easily be subjected to cross pollination.

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(5)

He identified very clear contrasting characters in the pea plants.

(6)

He selected pure breeding plants for his experiments. He is said to have spent about 2 years to ascertain this characteristic feature.

(7)

Mendel concentrated at a time only on the inheritance on one particular trait, with the two contrasting conditions, instead of attempting the inheritance of entire set of characters in the plant.

(8)

He maintained an accurate record of all the observations he made on the breeding experiments that he had designed.

(9)

He

pooled

the

data

obtained

from

similar

experiments

for

different

characteristics and analysed the results by using statistical methods and applying the law of probability. (10) He was able to effectively check the flowers under investigation from contamination by unwanted pollen grains. (11) Mendel was fortunate enough in choosing the seven pairs of contrasting characters in pea plants. It was later discovered that the genes responsible for these characters are located on separate chromosomes. (12) Mendel was also fortunate in the sense that the characters he had chosen in the pea plant did not show any interaction or linkage.

2.3

Monohybrid Crosses

2.3.1

Mendel’s Experiments of Monohybrid Crosses

Mendel chose to work with edible pea, Pisum sativum, since seeds for numerous varieties were available from local seeds man. Mendel started with 34 varieties of peas and spent 2 years selecting those varieties that he would use in his experiments. He verified that each variety was genetically pure (homozygous for each of the traits that he chose to study) by growing the plants for two generations and confirming that all offspring were the same as their parents. He then carried out a number of crosses between the different varieties. Although peas are normally self-fertilizing (each plant crosses with itself), Mendel conducted crosses between different plants by opening the buds before the anthers were fully developed, removing the anthers, and then dusting the stigma with pollen from a different plant. Mendel began by studying monohybrid crosses—those between parents that differed in a single characteristic. In one experiment, Mendel crossed a pea plant homozygous for round seeds with one that was homozygous for

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wrinkled seeds. This first generation of a cross is the P (parental) generation. After crossing the two varieties in the P generation, Mendel observed the offspring that resulted from the cross. When he examined their offspring, which he called the first filial (F1) generation, he discovered that they were always like one of the parents. When peas with round seeds were crossed with peas with wrinkled seeds, for example, the F1 offspring always produced round seeds. Mendel proposed to designate the traits expressed as dominant and the traits not expressed in the F1 as recessive. The full list of traits had the following relationships (Table 2.1) and the results of the Mendel’s monohybrid crosses are summarized in Table 2.2.

Table 2.1: Designation of the Mendel’s experimental traits

Table 2.2: The Results of Mendel’s monohybrid crosses

Mendel now allowed each F1 plants to self-pollinate, meaning that each stigma was fertilized by its own pollen, and the resultant second filial (F2) generation proved to include plants that displayed either the dominant or recessive trait. The key operation performed by Mendel at this point was to count the number of plants of

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each type. It is clean that in every cross, a ratio of three dominant to one recessive was obtained in the F2. Thus the inheritance of each alternate trait obeyed a nonrandom, quantitative rule.

2.3.2

What Monohybrid Crosses Reveal

Mendel drew several important conclusions from the results of his monohybrid crosses. (1)

First, he reasoned that, although the F1 plants display the phenotype of only one parent, they must inherit genetic factors from both parents because they transmit both phenotypes to the F2 generation. He concluded that each plant must therefore possess two genetic factors coding for a character (Alleles).

(2)

A second conclusion that Mendel drew from his monohybrid crosses was that the two alleles in each plant separate when gametes are formed, and one allele goes into each gamete (Segregation of alleles). When two gametes (one from each parent) fuse to produce a zygote, the allele from the male parent unites with the allele from the female parent to produce the genotype of the offspring. Thus, Mendel’s F1 plants inherited an R allele from the round-seeded plant and an r allele from the wrinkled-seeded plant. However, only the trait encoded by round allele (R) was observed in the F1—all the F1 progeny had round seeds.

(3)

Those traits that appeared unchanged in the F1 heterozygous offspring Mendel called dominant, and those traits that disappeared in the F1 heterozygous offspring he called recessive. When dominant and recessive alleles are present together, the recessive allele is masked, or suppressed. The concept of dominance was a third important conclusion that Mendel derived from his monohybrid crosses.

(4)

Mendel’s fourth conclusion was that the two alleles of an individual plant separate with equal probability into the gametes. When plants of the F1 (with genotype Rr) produced gametes, half of the gametes received the R allele for round seeds and half received the r allele for wrinkled seeds. The gametes then paired randomly to produce the following genotypes in equal proportions among the F2: RR, Rr, rR, rr. Because round (R) is dominant over wrinkled (r), there were three round progeny in the F2 (RR, Rr, rR) for every one wrinkled progeny (rr) in the F2.

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The conclusions that Mendel developed about inheritance from his monohybrid crosses have been further developed and formalized into (1) the principle of segregation and (2) the concept of dominance. (1) The principle of segregation (Mendel’s first law) states that each individual diploid organism possesses two alleles for any particular characteristic. These two alleles segregate (separate) when gametes are formed, and one allele goes into each gamete. Furthermore, the two alleles segregate into gametes in equal proportions. (2)

The concept of dominance states that, when two different alleles are present in a genotype, only the trait of the dominant allele is observed in the phenotype.

Concepts The principle of segregation states that each individual organism possesses two alleles coding for a characteristic. These alleles segregate when gametes are formed, and one allele goes into each gamete. The concept of dominance states that, when dominant and recessive alleles are present together, only the trait of the dominant allele is observed.

2.4

Dihybrid Crosses

2.4.1

Mendel’s Experiments of Dihybrid Crosses

In addition to his work on monohybrid crosses, Mendel also crossed varieties of peas that differed in two characteristics (dihybrid crosses). For example, he had one homozygous variety of peas that produced round seeds and yellow endosperm; another homozygous variety produced wrinkled seeds and green endosperm. When he crossed the two, all the F1 progeny had round seeds and yellow endosperm. He then self-fertilized the F1 and obtained the following progeny in the F2:

Mendel recognized that these traits appeared approximately in a 9:3:3:1 ratio; that is, of the progeny were round and yellow, were wrinkled and yellow, were round and green, and were wrinkled and green.

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2.4.2

The Principle of Independent Assortment

Mendel carried out a number of dihybrid crosses for pairs of characteristics and always obtained a 9:3:3:1 ratio in the F2. This ratio makes perfect sense in regard to segregation and dominance if we add a third principle, which Mendel recognized in his dihybrid crosses: the principle of independent assortment (Mendel’s second law). This principle states that alleles at different loci separate independently of one another. A common mistake is to think that the principle of segregation and the principle of independent

assortment

refer

to

two

different

processes.

The

principle

of

independent assortment is really an extension of the principle of segregation. The principle of segregation states that the two alleles of a locus separate when gametes are formed; the principle of independent assortment states that, when these two alleles separate, their separation is independent of the separation of alleles at other loci. Let’s see how the principle of independent assortment explains the results that Mendel obtained in his dihybrid cross. Each plant possesses two alleles coding for each characteristic, so the parental plants must have had genotypes RRYY and rryy. The principle of segregation indicates that the alleles for each locus separate, and one allele for each locus passes to each gamete. The gametes produced by the round, yellow parent therefore contain alleles RY, whereas the gametes produced by the wrinkled, green parent contain alleles ry. These two types of gametes unite to produce the F1, all with genotype RrYy. Because round is dominant over wrinkled and yellow is dominant over green, the phenotype of the F1 will be round and yellow. When Mendel self-fertilized the F1 plants to produce the F2, the alleles for each locus separated, with one allele going into each gamete. This is where the principle of independent assortment becomes important. Each pair of alleles can separate in two ways: (i) R separates with Y and r separates with y to produce gametes RY and ry or (ii) R separates with y and r separates with Y to produce gametes Ry and rY.

The principle of independent assortment tells us that the alleles at each locus separate independently; thus, both kinds of separation occur equally and all four

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types of gametes (RY, ry, Ry, and rY) are produced in equal proportions. When these four types of gametes are combined to produce the F2 generation, the progeny consist of round and yellow, wrinkled and yellow, round and green, and wrinkled and green, resulting in a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio.

2.4.3

Mendel’s Interpretation of His Experiments

The F1, he proposed, would again produce equal numbers of gametes carrying R alone and r alone. In addition, each gamete would produce four classes of gametes: RY, Ry, ry, and ry.

The results of self-fertilization in this case involves 4 x 4 = 16 possible combinations; these are displayed in the following chart (Punnett square) where each box in the grid represents the F2 plants resulting from the union of the egg on the left and pollen on the top (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3: F2 Generation (Punnett Square)

It should be possible to calculate the genotypic ratio of this cross (Table 2.4):

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Table 2.4: Genotypic and Phenotypic Ratios of Dihybrid Crosses

Concepts The principle of independent assortment states that genes coding for different characteristics separate independently of one another when gametes are formed, owing to independent separation of homologous pairs of chromosomes during meiosis. Genes located close together on the same chromosome do not, however, assort independently.

2.5

Applications of Mendel’s Principles

If the genetic basis of a trait is known, Mendel’s principles can be used to predict the outcome of crosses. There are three general procedures, two relying on the systematic enumeration of all the zygotic genotypes or phenotypes (Punnett square method and Forked-line method) and one relying on mathematical insight (Probability method).

2.5.1

The Punnett Square Method

For situations involving one or two genes, it is possible to write down all the gametes and combine them systematically to generate the array of zygotic genotypes. Once these have been obtained, the Principle of Dominance can be used to determine the associated phenotypes. This procedure, called the Punnett square method after the British geneticist RC Punnett, is a straightforward way of predicting the outcome of crosses.

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To predict the types of offspring that result from this cross, we first determine which gametes will be produced by each parent (Figure 2.2-a). The principle of segregation tells us that the two alleles in each parent separate, and one allele passes to each gamete. All gametes from the homozygous RRYY round-yellowseeded plant will receive a single round (R) and yellow (Y) alleles. The F1 plants in this cross is heterozygous (RrYy); so 25% of its gametes will receive a round-yellow alleles (RY), 25% will receive wrinkled-green (ry), 25% will receive round-green (Ry) alleles, and the other 25% will receive wrinkled-yellow alleles (rY) (Figure 2.2-b).

Figure 2.2: Symbolic representation of Mendel’s dihybrid cross.

A Punnett square is constructed by drawing a grid, putting the gametes produced by one parent along the upper edge and the gametes produced by the other parent down the left side (Figure 2.2-c). Each cell (a block within the Punnett square) contains an allele from each of the corresponding gametes, generating the genotype of the progeny produced by fusion of those gametes. By simply counting, we can determine the types of progeny produced and their ratios. We have used it to analyze the zygotic output of the cross with Mendel’s yellow, round F1 hybrids—a type of mating commonly called an intercross (Figure 2.2). However, in more complicated situations, like those involving more than two genes, the Punnett square method is unwieldy.

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2.5.2

The Forked-Line or Branch Diagram Method

Another procedure for predicting the outcome of a cross involving two or more genes is the forked-line or branch diagram method. However, instead of enumerating the progeny in a square by combining the gametes systematically, we tally them in a diagram of branching lines. When the genes at two loci separate independently, a dihybrid cross can be understood as two monohybrid crosses. Let’s examine Mendel’s dihybrid cross (RrYy x RrYy) by considering each characteristic separately (Figure 2.3-a). If we consider only the shape of the seeds, the cross was Rr x Rr, which yields a 3:1 phenotypic ratio (¾ round and ¼ wrinkled progeny). Next consider the other characteristic, the color of the endosperm. The cross was Yy x Yy, which produces a 3:1 phenotypic ratio (¾ yellow and ¼ green progeny).

Figure 2.3: The forked-line or branch diagram method can be used for determining the phenotypes and expected proportions of offspring from a dihybrid testcross (RrYy x rryy).

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We can now combine these monohybrid ratios by using the multiplication rule to obtain the proportion of progeny with different combinations of seed shape and color. The proportion of progeny with round and yellow seeds is ¾ (the probability of round) x ¾ (the probability of yellow) = 9/16. The proportion of progeny with round and green seeds is ¾ x ¼ = 3/16; the proportion of progeny with wrinkled and yellow seeds is ¼ x ¾ = 3/16; and the proportion of progeny with wrinkled and green seeds is ¼ x ¼ = 1/16. Branch diagrams are a convenient way of organizing all the combinations of characteristics (Figure 2.3-b). In the first column, list the proportions of the phenotypes for one character (here, ¾ round and ¼ wrinkled). In the second column, list the proportions of the phenotypes for the second character (¾ yellow and ¼ green) next to each of the phenotypes in the first column: put ¾ yellow and ¼ green next to the round phenotype and again next to the wrinkled phenotype. Draw lines between the phenotypes in the first column and ...