2. The Ancient Worlds - Complete revision notes & historiography PDF

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2: THE ANCIENT WORLDS Sima Qian – Records of the Historian 

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Written records of the time came from historians – each dynasty had a historians (elites) who praised the current dynasty and degraded previous ones (e.g. Sima Qian – 146-86 BC) o Xia, Shang, Zhou dynasties Primary sources are explored to validate Sima’s stories Records are thus biased in Sima’s places – story he told, dates and names supporting/contradicting the records Provides enough information to reflect the mix of cultures existing in Ancient China

Neolithic Culture: Earliest Evidence  

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Chinese history begins in 10,000 BC o By 5000 BC Neolithic cultures had emerged in many of China’s river valleys Agriculture was the key change, helped by climate change towards warmer, wetter weather o Crops allow dense and permanent settlements o Mobilised communities- new social organisation Permanent settlements brought new forms of social organisation: territory, villages Stretched from Shandong to Henan and Gansu 4000-700 BC Continuity in style and practice of jade objects from Neolithic period to later in China’s history o Association between immorality and jade o In Longshan culture, jade was found covering bodies in tombs

Hemudu Culture (5000 - 4500 BC)  Culture of rice, wood lacquering, black pottery, houses on stilts  Rice cultivation begun in 9th century BC Longshan Culture (3000 - 2000 BC)  Beginnings of bronze working, burial rites, rammed earth walls, first oracle bones Yangshao Culture (5000 - 3000 BC)  Agriculture, sericulture, distinctive pottery design, tripods, integrated vessels, burial chambers, funerary objects  Period of design Hongshan Culture (4700 - 2900 BC)  Jade pig dragons Qijia Culture (2400 - 1900 BC)  Seen as an ‘early bronze age culture’

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Bronze and copper, divination with the shoulder blades of animals

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Neolithic cultures can be divided East-West on basis of artistic styles and burial practices o West: Yang Shao culture burials were simple, pottery decorated with geometrical designs, jars painted in red and black with geometric patterns, limited range of shapes (jars and urns) o East: Liaoning province to Shanghai – pottery was rarely painted but more elaborate from early on (tripods, pedestalled bowls and cups). Burials also more elaborate in the east (coffins, wooden chambers to line burial pit as a further layer of protection, rich graves contained up to 50-100+ objects (necklaces, bracelets made of jade, stone)

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Eastern cultures finely worked jade – a very hard stone formed when rocks have been crushed over millions of years to make a configuration of molecules. Jade doesn’t split easily, and shaping it is a slow, labour-intensive process o Made into ornaments and figurines in Hong-Shan area (turtles, birds, pig dragons) o Figurines found at sites of stone ritual structures- jade figurines had symbolic/religious meanings Mobilisation of labour further reflected in the building of rammed earth walls in Shandong province – shows social organisation emerging as there must have been chiefs capable of commanding large quantities of resources and men Late Neolithic period (3000 – 2000 BC) was a time of increased conflict between communities – metal used on a small scale for weapons In 2000 BC Neolithic Chinese communities were very varied o Many languages spoken (some related, others not) o Shamans powerful in some tribes, unknown in others o Warfare dominated life in some times and places but not in others o Misleading to think of all cultures as proto-Chinese from early on

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‘Great Man’ Theory 

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Through most of imperial period, literate Chinese had a ‘great man’ theory of how their civilization developed – attributing a series of brilliant human beings that transformed the Chinese from primitive to civilised o Contrast to other cultures who called Gods their creators ‘Great Men’: o Fu Xi: ox-tamer, domesticated animals, invented the family Shen Nong: divine farmer, invented the plough Huang Di: yellow lord, invented bow and arrow, boats, carts, ceramics, writing, silk. Also fought a great battle against alien tribes and secured the yellow river for his people - first of 5 great pre-dynastic rulers First pre-dynastic ruler was Huang Di, then Tao, then Shun, then Yu o Yu divided Chinese realms into 9 regions and had bronze vessels cast to represent each one Pre-dynastic rulers were chosen, not hereditary - except for Yu as when Yu died his chosen successor was rejected by the Chinese who instead turned to Yu’s son to lead them, establishing the precedent of hereditary, dynastic rule Yu (the Great) and his son were first 2 Kings of 14-ruler long Xia dynasty o o

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o Overthrown by tyrant King Jie who founded his own dynasty- the Shang Shang dynasty lasted 30 rulers until King lost support of his nobles and people by being selfindulgent, so Zhou armies from West overthrew the Shang o Zhou became last of 3 ancient dynasties: Xia, Shang, Zhou

Summary: Ancient dynasties  Xia: headed by Yu of the pre-dynastic rulers  Shang: started by King Jie (tyrant) who overthrew Xia  Zhou: from West, succeeded on weaknesses of Shang   

Recorded China’s story as a linear narrative, centred on the succession of rulers Past like a family tree – could be traced back through 1 line of ancestors Questionable whether Chinese history is a single strand or different rulers who influenced each others development – all contributing to the evolution of Chinese civilisation

Yu the Great (2200 – 2100 BC) 

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A legendary ruler in ancient China famed for: o His introduction of flood control o Cementing dynastic rule in China by founding the Xia Dynasty o His upright moral character. Few, if any, records exist from the period of Chinese history when Yu reigned. Because of this, the vast majority of information about his life and reign comes from collected pieces of oral tradition and stories that were passed down in various areas of China o Many were collected in Sima Qian’s ‘Records of the Grand Historian’. Sima attributed to Yu and his successors the same authority and status as the rulers of the Shang and Zhou dynasties o Xia represented as a ‘dynasty’ like the succeeding ruling houses of the Shang and Zhou periods Yu and other “sage-kings” of Ancient China were admired by Confucius and other Chinese teachers praised their virtues and morals.

Erlitou culture (1900-1350 BC)  Emergence of bronze vessels  Highly stratified culture, with large buildings  Different status, aesthetic and style of bronze making  Earliest bronze vessels appearing 1700-1600 BC  

Constant evolution in Chinese culture due to contact with West Asia – brought horses, chariots Explosion of bronze sophistication as a result of people further West – borrowing of techniques and practices

Tombs  

Objects inside tombs that have been discovered provide valuable insight into Ancient Chinese cultures 1828-1837, the Anyang Site was excavated o 11 large tombs, thousands of smaller graves o o

Animals 90 devotees followed the King’s in death

The Shang Queens   

Had higher status than later queens Important ritual tasks Led the armies

Lady Fu Hao’s Tomb, 1200 BC  1976, it was identified as the final resting place of the queen and military general Fu Hao, who died about 1200 BC – Lady Fu Hao (Mother Xin) o Likely royal consort to King Wu Ding (ruled 1215-1190 BC)  One of the best preserved royal tombs of the Shang dynasty (1600 -1046 BC)  Tomb is at Yinxu  Contained a wealth of lavish objects, despite being one of the smaller tombs of the dynasty: o 755 jade objects (including Longshan and Hongshan cultural artifacts) o 564 bone objects (oracle bone inscriptions) o

468 bronze objects (including over 200 ritual bronze vessels, 130 weapons, 27 knives, and 4 tiger statues)

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63 stone objects

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6,900 cowry shells (used as currency during the Shang Dynasty)

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16 human slaves (human sacrifice)

Shang Dynasty (1600 -1046 BC)   

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After 2000 BC, more complex bronze-age civilisation emerged out of the Neolithic cultures in the north: metal-working, domestication of horse, class system, stable political-religious hierarchy Xia dynasty (preceding Shang) questioned as no evidence has been found of written documents, but there was a major transition in this period of Chinese history Shang state didn’t control a very large part of China ‘proper’, but the influence of Shang culture extended far beyond its territorial limits (technology and decorative motifs adapted throughout Yangzi valley) Shang: o 5 successive capitals o Kings ruled for more than 2 centuries o Civilisation had large and complex cult cultures Advanced military technology: bronze-tipped spears, composite bows, horse-drawn chariots

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Chariots emerged from 1200 BC from Western Asia, allowing the commanders supervision of troops and soldiers and archers greater mobility Shang Kingship based on: o Military supremacy o Religion o Ritual

Religion & Sacrifice  Shang King played a priestly role in worship of high God Di and royal ancestors – justifying his political powers o King was considered best suited to his role because among the dead his ancestors could communicate with Di and among living he was able to communicate with his ancestors that the King was fitter to rule- importance of royal ancestral cult  Animals and human beings were sacrificed to royal ancestors and various nature Gods o Principles underlying sacrifice were reciprocity and feeding – make offerings to those from whom one wants help, feeds rich foods to the God/ancestor to keep him strong o Shang Kings often sacrificed humans Subordinates would often voluntarily accompany a superior in death – felt obligations to serve to those above them beyond death Tomb 1001 (Anyang) contains remains of a King from 1200 BC, along with 90 followers who joined him in death – 74 humans, 12 horses, 11 dogs Vast tombs of royal family show the ability of Shang rulers to mobilise human and material resources o Thousands of labourers were assembled to dig huge holes up to 40 feet deep, construct large wooden burial chambers and fill the site with rammed earth o

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Writing    

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Modern Chinese writing evolved from script employed by diviners in the Shang period Organisation of Shang government should be credited to their writing system Date of first writing in China is unknown as it was done on perishable materials – wood, bamboo, silk Earliest evidence of full sentences found on oracle bones of late Shang- Shang used a language directly ancestral to modern Chinese language and used a written script that evolved into the Chinese writing system used today Logographic script the Shang used had momentous consequences for the way Chinese civilisation developed o Shaped nature of the elite: difficulty of mastering script made those expert in it an elite of rare but essential skills o Affected process of cultural expansion and assimilation: people on outskirts of Chinese culture who learned to read Chinese were drawn into Chinese culture more easily

Bronzes  

Development of more complex forms of social organisation in Shang China was tied to perfecting metal-working techniques Earliest bronze vessels from 1700-1600 BC from Erlitou (Hanan province associated with Xia dynasty)

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Bronzes steadily got larger and heavier – by late Shang times huge vessels were made, weighing up to 200 pounds (stark contrast to 1mm thick Erlitou vessels) Variety of bronze objects: o Cups o Goblets o Steamers o Cauldrons Beautifully shaped and decorated objects in a variety of shaped and sizes – used in sacrificial rituals Bronze vessels produced in Shang China reveal much about Shang culture and society o Willingness of Shang elite to devote huge quantities of a valued resources to ritual uses – up to 200 vessels put into a single grave o Organisation of Shang rulers - production of such quantities needed a mobilisation of men and material to mine, transport, and refine ores, manufacture clay moulds and cast the bronze o Dynamics of cultural change during Shang times Bronze technology spread beyond area controlled by Shang – into areas Shang considered alien o Sanxingdui in Sichuan province – large bronze-producing culture, didn’t share Shang artistry or religious beliefs, 2 large sacrificial pits discovered:  1 containing 300 valuable metals (gold, bronze), jade and stone objects, life-sized bronze heads  Second pit had a life-sized statue, 41 bronze heads  Predicted to be remains of large-scale sacrificial ceremonies held a generation apart  No evidence of human remains – statue and heads stood in for sacrifice of human beings Bronzes weren’t the only form of Shang art, even if they did survive the best: o Jade: finely worked objects (cong, bi, knives, axes) used in burials o Silk: elaborately woven o o

Carved wood and ivory Shang Kings and noble families lived surrounded by objects of great beauty

The Zhou Conquest  

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Shang campaigned constantly against enemies to control its territories. In 1050 BC, Zhou rose against Shang and defeated it in battle Founding of Zhou was associated with a series of important religious changes. o Scale of human sacrifice at burials declined – ideas about death and afterlife changing (voluntary accompanying in death continued on significantly smaller scale) o Practice of divining with oracle bones declined o Introduction of concept of heaven - conceived as sacred moral power of the cosmos Rule of Zhou Kings was linked to heaven – a King and dynasty could only rule if they retained heaven’s favour – Mandate of Heaven o Moral values built into the cosmos o History read as a mirror of heaven’s will Ruler mediated between heaven and realm of human beings, his virtue ensured harmony of the two sides

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These ideas were absent in Shang cosmology, and elaborated by early Zhou rulers as propaganda to win over conquered Shang subjects- moral basis for their seizure of power

3 Zhou rulers established a stable state Emblematic figures who represented leadership qualities required for establishment of enduring states: o King Wen (‘Cultured King’)  Formed alliances with neighbouring states and tribes in preparation for attacking Shang o King Wu (‘Martial King’)  Son of King Wen  Launched expedition that succeeded in defeating Shang army and taking its capital  Wu died young, 6 years after conquests, and his brother, the Duke of Zhou, acted as regent for Wu’s young son o Duke of Zhou  Extended and consolidated new territories  When young King came of age, Duke of Zhou gave up his power and became a loyal subject King bore title ‘Son of Heaven’ Society conceived in strongly hierarchical terms- Son of Heaven, lords, great ministers, other officers, knights, court attendants, and finally ordinary farmers Many non-Chinese people interspersed among Zhou domains that resisted Zhou hegemony. Chinese writers of time classified them into 4 ethnic groups: o Yi: Modern Shandong o Man: Yangzi valley o Di: Northern order o Rong: Shaanxi In some areas several political entities came into existence independently and their chiefs called themselves Kings Shifts in Zhou art from Shang tradition o Large bronze vessels abundant in early Zhou times, same Shang craftsmen, but within generations bronzes disappeared o Birdlike imagery became more important o Ornamental decorations Earliest Chinese poetry originates from early Zhou period – poems sung at court during important ceremonies- 305 poems in the Book of Songs (Shijing)

Time and History in China  

Connection between differences in conceptions of time of China and West and emergence of modern technology in China Unlike some other religions, Christianity was tied to time o Reincarnation occurred at a definite point in time o Christianity rooted in Israel – culture where time is real and the medium of real change. Hebrews were the first Westerners to value time

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Christian thought structured around the life of Christ- continuous linear redemptive time process o Recurring present: unique, unrepeatable, decisive, unique future o Present affected by action of individual o Moral purpose in history: the action of man o The world process was one with no repeats Contrast to Greek and Roman worlds where repeating conceptions were dominant – eternal recurrence of ages – the future was closed and determined, the present was not unique o Endless repetitions of the wheel of existence o Greek beliefs similar to Hindu and Buddhist beliefs – reincarnation and rebirth Space predominates over time (time is cyclical and eternal) – temporal world is less than the world of timeless forms and has no ultimate value Salvation can only be gained by the individual (e.g. self saving Buddha) not by the community Judaeo-Christian: time predominates over space o Movement is directed and meaningful o Age-long battle between God and evil powers o True being is immanent in becoming o Salvation is for the community and through history World era is fixed upon a central point o Gives meaning to entire process o Overcomes any self-destructive trend o Creates something new which can’t be frustrated by any cycles of time Monotheism: religion where God is the controller of time and all that happens o Faith is tied to the future and the past o World is redeemable not illusory o Kingdom of God will claim the world o Optimistic Intense history-consciousness of Christendom in Europe may explain the absence of scientific revolution in other cultures Strong contrast between linear irreversible time and the myth of eternal recurrence o Elements of both in Chinese civilisation, with linearity dominating o Linear time-consciousness of Chinese culture Cyclical time was prominent among early Taoist speculative philosophers o Recurring judgement days o Cyclism of seasons and life-spans of living things If Chinese civilisation didn’t spontaneously develop modern natural science as western Europe did, it was not because of her attitude towards time, other factors are linked and burden most explanation: o Geography o Social conditions o Economic conditions To Shang diviners time was a part of religious cosmology – integral part of lives: observed, shaped, regulated Human time was conceived in terms of a religious time that was concerned with: o The schedule of rituals and sacrifices

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o Luck of a particular day or week o Significance of unexpected events Regular scheduling of rituals created order Seasons helped and organised peasantry as they worked on land – filling in spring and summer, waiting in winter Peasants conception of time linked to: o Weather: rain, wind, head, cold – powers sent down upon them o Varying warmth of sun o Passage of the seasons o Motions of the planets o Counting moons and suns o Shift in the direction and strength of winds o Migration of bird species o Planting and sprouting of seeds o Taking of harvests o Passage of hours marked by the angle of the sun Shang sacred time was highly organised, and this organisation was related to the complexity and ritual order of Shang elite social structure Shang divination couldn’t have flourished without the assumption that a coherent temporal order existed – this assumption was created due to ‘time’

Day and Night  Various methods used in Shang period to refer t...