5. Clause AND Sentence - valentina piunno - sapienza PDF

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valentina piunno - sapienza...

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CLAUSE AND SENTENCE Clauses can be combined in various ways to make complex and compound sentences. A clause is a grammatical unit that must contain a predicator (the verbal element) and usually other clause elements like subject, complement, adverbial.. We use the expression "sentences" for written languages; meanwhile the expression "utterances" for spoken languages. There are five major clause elements in English:  Subject (S),  Predicator (P),  Object (O),  Complement (C),  Adverbial (A). Each clause element be realized by more than one word class, except for verbs. Clause function:  Relate to the role that a unit plays in the larger structure. Thus althought noun phrases often function as subject, and subjects are very often fulfilled by noun phrases, there is no semantic intrinsic connection and it's important to know that a noun phrase may have a number of functions that are not as a subject clause element.

SUBJECT The subject clause element is a syntactic function that is mainly fulfilled by noun phrases, but may also be fulfilled by a subordinate clause.  Function--> the "actor" represents the subject of a clause.  Form--> 1. NP: MY SON TO UNI IN WALLS 2. Subordinate clause: TO PERFORM AT MADISON SQUARE GARDENS WAS HER HIGHEST AMBITION.  Distribution (the position of subject in sentence)--> usually precede the predicator BUT a predicator will not be preceded by subject in : 1. Imperative structures --> implied subject of a command is clearly the second person. GO TO BED IMMEDIATELY! 2. Subordinate clauses --> has no subject for non finite verbs (elliptical): AFTER CLOSING THE CURTAINS SHE TURNED ON THE TELEVISION. In the passive form the subject become the patient. PREDICATOR (P) Predicator is the only place in the clause where form and function map onto each other one to one. Only verb phrases function as predicator, but some parts of the verb take on noun or ajd-like functions at times: MY BROKEN HEART (WILL NEVER MEND). All clauses have predicator and in main clauses and finite subordinate it follows the subject.  Form--> verbs have few forms of its own,  Function--> what is said about the S; Action, state, process,  Distribution--> normally follows the subject but in non-finite subordinate clauses with no subject, it will be the first element in the clause or follow a subordinating conjuction: HAVING IDENTIFIED THE BODY.. AFTER BEING QUESTIONED..

OBJECT Like the subject, the object function is mainly fulfilled by noun phrases, though a clause also take its place. I ALWAYS HOPE THAT HE WILL REMEMBER ME. SEVEN BABY FROGS CROSSED THE PATH IN FRONT OF ME.  Function: the element affected by the verb, object that is not affected but created by the action of the verb: MY MOTHER KNITTED A TEA COSY.  Form: NP, clause  Distribution: after the predicator There is also the indirect object in addition to direct object.  Function--> Beneficiary  Form--> a noun phrase or a pronoun.  Position--> the indirect object precedes the direct object. MY MOTHER KNITTED ME A TEA COSY. JENNIFER SENT HER BOSS A POSTCARD. The indirect object can alternatively be placed into an adverbial , usually a prepositional phrase, with little changing in meaning. MY MOTHER KNITTED A TEA COFFE FOR ME. JENNIFER SENT A POSTCARD TO HER BOSS. COMPLEMENT A complement is a syntactic function that can fulfilled by a nominal element or an adjectival element.  Form--> NP, ADJ_P ,  Function--> used to complete what we know about something or somebody already mentioned (S or O) ,  Distribution--> -Intensive verbs (be, seem, become, appear): subject complements go after verbs. -Verbs of change (make, paint, colour) -Verbs of perception (think, consider) SOFIA IS A TEACHER -object complements after the object: MARY MADE ME SUCCESSSFUL.

ADVERBIAL PHRASE Adverbial elements can be omitted, and more than one adverbial may appear in a sentence. Adverbial phrase: ...VERY SLOWLY. Adverb: UNFORTUNATELY.  Form--> ADVP,PP, NP  Function--> -Verb modifier: describes the circumstances in which the process of the clause takes place; -Sentence modifier: expresses modality  Distribution--> -Adjuncts: They have a potential for mobility that the other clause elements lack: I WON'T BE ABLE, UNFORTUNATELY, BE ABLE TO COME-I WONT' BE ABLE TO COME UNFORTUNATELY. -Compulsory Adverbials: after the predicator.

Many sentences in english are complicated than these simple clauses and there are two process can produce further structural patterning:  Coordination,  Subordination or embedding. Both of them can operate at any level of structure. Coordinate structures Coordination doesn't change the structure but adds some content to it. Two units are given equal status:  coordination of words/phrases--> MY CHILDREN WERE RUNNING AND SUMPING: ellipsis of auxiliaries verbs.  coordination of two whole clauses--> I HAD VEAL PIE AND JANE HAD THE SALAD. Coordination of clauses:  The clauses that are being coordinated may have the same structure: MY FATHER WAS A SALESMAN BUT MY MOTHER WAS A BUS DRIVER.  There is no requirement for the clauses to be identical in structure: JULIA WILL MAKE A CAKE OR YOU CAN GO TO THE BAKER? Subordinate structures A higher level unit is included in one of the lower level units--> embedding: the main forms of subordination are where phrases contain other phrases in this way, producing a continuous cycle of embedding. SHE TOOK HER DOG TO THE VET ON STAINBECK LANE IN MEANWOOD. THE CHAIR IN THE CORNER OF THE ROOM IN MY HOUSE IN TUSCANY. The use of subordination:  Recursive feature of human language,  Allows us to make an infinitely large number of utterances. Main forms of subordination:  Embedding of phrases--> phrases may contain other phrases,  Embedding of clauses--> clauses can be embedded: -In the NP: relative clauses--> contribute to find the reference of the noun: Restrictive--> identifies the referent THE BOY THAT YOY SAW ON THE BUS IS MY BROTHER. Non-restrictive--> provides background context JOHN, WHO IS A VERY NICE GUY HAS DECIDED TO MOVE TO ROME. -At the level of a clause element (noun clauses (S, O, C), adverb clauses (adjuncts)).

INFORMATION STURCTURE The normal clause in English is structured in a way that the new information tends to occur towards the end of the clause. It is related to the way that an information is given. The order of clauses is fairly fixed. There are some ways of altering the information focus of clauses = placing one clause element in a focal position:  Fronting,  Cleft sentence,  Transformations (e.g. passive). Fronting Fronting put the focal element at the beginning of the clause. There are two kind of fronting:  Inversion--> -Subject and predicator elements are put in reverse order: HERE'S THE HOTEL, -Subject and the first auxiliary elements are reversed: MANY TIMES DID I CONSIDER. Inversion of subject and predicator tends to be in fixed phrases or literaly styles. Cleft sentence (frase scissa) It uses a fairly information-light frame, such as IT WAS...THAT..., and then slotting the required clause element into the focal point after verb. IT WAS THE BRITISH ELECTORATE THAT ELECTED TONY BLAIR PRIME MINISTER IN 1997- IT WAS IN 1997 THAT THE BRITISH ELECTORATE VOTED TONY BLAIR PRIME MINISTER. Transformations Transformation is a patterned relationship between sets of sentences that can be explained by a simple rule. Active transformation into Passive transformation: THE DOG ATE MY DINNER--> MY DINNER WAS EATEN BY MY DOG. The meaning change is regular:  Emphasis on the suffering of the action,  Omission of the agent. Transformations are one of the way of exploring a particular feature of human language: the ability to construct an infinite number of sentences or utterances....