A PSY 203 quiz #1 review - Notes from UAlbany class PDF

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1 APSY 203 Quiz #1 Review The Field of Child Development  Understanding constancy and change from conception through adolescence o Applied importance o Interdisciplinary o Dynamic: children are dynamic, constantly changing Domains of Development  Physical: strength  Cognitive: thought process, language  Emotional and social  These domains are not mutually exclusive (they all influence each other) What factors may explain the relationship between reading difficulties, anxiety, and depression? How might internalizing problems contribute to reading difficulties? Around the 3rd/4th grade ability starts to be emphasized Periods of Development Prenatal Conception to Birth  Most rapid growth stage Infancy & Toddlerhood Birth – 2 Years  Much more physically autonomous Early Childhood 2 - 6 Years  Language explosion, more independent Middle Childhood 6 – 11 Years  Learning to become adults, rights & wrongs, mimic people Adolescence 11 – 18 Years  Learning to think abstractly and less concretely Emerging Adulthood 18 – 25 Years  Adapting to life on their own Theory  Predicts behavior  Either proven or disproven via scientific verification  An orderly, integrated, evidence-based set of statements that: o Describes o Explains o Predicts behavior  Always multiple theories for everything

2 Basic Issues in Development  Continuous or discontinuous (stage theories) o Plateau then move to next step o One step isn’t necessarily dependent on the other  One course of development or many  Nature or nurture o 50/50, one doesn’t influence more than the other Contexts of Development  Unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances o Results in different developmental paths  Factors: o Heredity and biological makeup o Environment (home, child, care, school) o Circumstances (community resources, social values) Nature  Inborn. biological givens  Based on genetic inheritance Nature  Physical and social world  Influence biological and psychological development Stability vs. Plasticity  Stability: usually associated with heredity o Lifelong characteristics o Early experiences establish patterns  Plasticity: responsive to experience  *Balance view embraces continuous and discontinuous change Resilient Children  Ability to adopt effectively in the face of threats to development  Easygoing, sociable, malleable, intelligent  What factors offer protection? o Personal characteristics, including temperament o Warm parental relationship o Social support outside immediate family o Community resources and opportunities  High intelligence is another important factor o You realize there is more out there for you Historical Views of Childhood  Medieval Era o Childhood (ages 7-8) regarded as separate phase with special needs

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o Vulnerable (either angels or possessed) o Children are considered possessed by the devil and need purification o Angel like 16th Century o Puritan “child depravity” views o Evil and stubborn o Restrictive rearing practices o Needed to be taught right/wrong 17th Century o John Locke’s “tabula rasa” or “blank slate” view o Led to kindness and compassion o Kids come to the world ready to learn from society th 18 Century o Jean Jacques Rousseau’s “noble savages” view o Built in sense of right/wrong (have a conscious) o Adults should be receptive to children’s needs

Scientific Beginnings  Darwin’s theory of evolution o Natural selection o Survival of the fittest o Genes passed to later generations o Theorists believe children develop in manner similar to evolution: scientific child study Early Scientific Study of Development  Normative approach o Age-related averages o Based on measurements of large numbers of people  Mental testing movement o Simon & Binet: Early developers of intelligence tests  James Mark Baldwin o Developmental theorist o Nature & nurture of equal importance Psychoanalytic Perspective  Childhood stages involve conflicts between biological drivers and socal expectations o Freud’s psychosexual theory o Erikson’s psychosocial theory Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality  ID o Largest portion of the mind o Unconscious, present at birth

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o Source of biological needs and desires Ego o Conscious, rational part of mind o Emerges in early infancy o Redirects id impulses acceptably Superego o The conscience o Develops from ages 3 to 6, from interactions with caregivers

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages  Oral  Anal  Phallic  Latency  Genital Erickson’s Psychosocial Stages

Comparing Freud to Erikson  Freud Psychosexual Stages o Oral o Anal o Phallic o Latency o Genital  Erikson Psychosocial Stages o Basic trust vs. mistrust o Autonomy vs. shame / doubt o Initiative vs. guilt o Industry vs. inferiority o Identity vs. role confusion o Intimacy vs. isolation

5 o Generativity vs. stagnation o Integrity vs. despair Behaviorism and Social Learning  Classical conditioning o Stimulus – response  Operant conditioning o Reinforces and punishments  Social Learning o Modeling o Kids learn through social interactions o Albert Bandura  Modeling is also called imitation or observational learning  Cognition refers to thought process of thinking Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Piaget: most influential theorist kids actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world  Theory dominant since the 1980’s  Kids understand the world differently from adults  Kids go through stages as the brain develops and experiences increase (stage theory) Sensorimotor Birth – 2 years  How baby’s explore and understand their world (through senses and movement) Preoperational 2 – 7 years  Learning what makes them operate Concrete operational 7 – 11 years  Logical thinking, working towards a higher knowledge Formal operational 11 years and older  Thinking abstractly Construct = build Operate = what makes you function The older children get, the better they get at manipulating the world Recent Theoretical Perspectives  Information processing o The human mind might also be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows  Developmental cognitive neuroscience o Brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study relationship between brain and developing child’s cognitive processing, behavior patterns  Ethology o Concerned with adaptive value of behavior

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Ethology – Sensitive Period  An optimal time for certain capacities to emerge  Individual is especially responsive to environment  Development is hard to induce later  Boundaries less defined than a critical period  Sensitive periods apply to child development  Boundaries less defined than a critical period Evolutionary Developmental Psychology  Seeks to understand the adaptive value of human competencies  Studies cognitive, emotional, and social competencies and how they change with age o Role of learning o What behaviors are no longer adaptive?  Complete organism – environment system Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory  Transmission of culture to a new generation o Beliefs, customs, skills o Requires social interaction to learn o Cooperative dialogues  Socially mediated process  Children learn from their parents and expert peers Ecological Systems Theory  Brothenner  Child develops with complex system of relationships o Microsystem: child’s immediate contacts (family) o Mesosystem: interactions between people in the microsystem o Exosystem: organizations that don’t have direct affect on child o Macrosystem: laws, values, and customs  Environment is ever changing  Chronosystem: refers to time, historical context Social Policy  Planned set of actions by a group, institution, or governing body to attain a social goal o Public policy: laws and other government social policy programs o Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory  U.S. lags behind Individualist and Collectivist Societies Individualist  People think of themselves as separate from others  Concerned with personal goals

7 Collectivist  People define themselves as part of a group  Concerned with group goals over individual goals Social Issues and Child Development  Child development research contributed to success of many programs o Project head start o WIC  UN convention on rights of the child  Welfare reform promotes development only when improves standard of living  Justification for child-oriented policies: o Children are the future o Humanitarian grounds – children have basic rights as human beings CHAPTER 2 From Theory to Hypothesis  Hypothesis: a prediction drawn from a theory  Research can: o Test a prediction of one theory against that of another o Test a prediction of one theory o Start with a research question, if there is no theory A theory is a statement, which leads to a hypothesis, which is a research question. Why learn about research strategies?  Help us separate dependable information from misleading results  Individuals who work with children may be in a unique position to build bridges between research and practice Systematic Observation Naturalistic  Occurs in natural contexts  Reflects everyday behaviors  Conditions cannot be controlled  Possible observer bias  Don’t manipulate the subjects Structured  Occurs in lab  All participants have equal chance to display behavior  May not yield typical behaviors  Possible observer bias Collecting Systematic Observations  Procedures vary according to research

8 o Event sampling: records all behaviors during specified time period  The event is a behavior  Looking at quality, not quantity of behavior  Behavior is being analyzed, useful for rare behaviors or have a lasting effect o Time sampling: records certain behaviors occurring during sample of short intervals (also can be called interval sampling)  Percentage of occurrence, quantity  Then you go look forth and look at antecedents and stimuli Younger kids can only keep it together for 1-2 sessions of being observed. Limitations of Systematic Observation  Observer bias o Observers record what they expect, rather than what participants actually do (experimenter expectation bias) o Those with no knowledge of hypothesis are best observers (double blind)  Observer influence o Participants may react in unnatural ways – can’t keep it together long o Can be minimized – visit/parents observe Clinical Interviews – Self Report  Flexible, conversational style  A type of self report  Probes for participants point of view  Limitations o Accuracy of participants expressions o Distortions in participants recall, judgments o Flexibility may make response too varied  Conversational style interview, very unstructured  Ask open ended questions, may get more into back, or you may not get back what you need at all  Your not asking specific questions  You can go off the flow of the previous question Structured Interviews, Tests, and Questionnaires  No open ended questions  Each participant is asked the same questions in the ame way o You loose rich clinical information o You can give individually or to a group o Eliminates most interview bian o People can still be dishonest o Efficient o Answers from entire group at same time  Limitations

9 o Can still be affected by inaccurate reporting o Not as in-depth Neurobiological Methods  Measures relationship between nervous system process and behavior o Helps infer perceptions, thoughts, emotions or infants and young children  Measures of autonomic nervous system activity sensitive to psychological state o Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupils, stress hormones Methods of Measuring Brain Functioning  Electroencephalogram (EEG): brain wave detection  Event-related potentials (ERP’s): brain wave detection  Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (BF/OM): blood flow and oxygen metabolization Clinical/Case Study Method  Brings together a wide range of information on one child o Interviews o Observations o Test scores o Neurobiological measures  Limitation: not generalizable Ethnography  Descriptive, qualitative technique  Cultural group study  Goal to understand a culture or social group o Participant observation o Researcher lives in community for months or years o Works to capture unique values and social processes; direct and close contact Immigrant Youths  Academic achievement and adjustment o Very high outcomes, especially among Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, and East Indian youths  Family and ethnic-community influences o Parents emphasize value of education o Children view successes at school as a way of repaying their parents for their sacrifices o Close ties to ethnic community exert additional controls on children Reliability and Validity Reliability  Consistency, repetability of a measure o Inter-rater affrement on observations

10 o Test – retest separate Validity  How accurately the measure captures characteristics the researcher is trying to study o Internal validity: study conditions o External validity: generalizability A study can be reliable but not valid, but if it’s not valid then it’s not reliable....