Adult Development Summary Notes PDF

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Topic 1: Fundamental Questions of Development Developmental psychology is the study of age-based differences and changes, beginning from conception to death. This includes cognitive, emotional and personality factors, and it assumes that behaviour changes over time. This is understood as being a natural trajectory, however the question of whether this trajectory is a result of experience or genetics is debated. Developmental psychology tries to describe changes and development within individuals, but also between individuals. It does not subscribe to a single theory, and takes into account the various factors affecting development (risk and protective factors). It also questions the limitations between what is ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’. Historically, there has been a huge amount of research into child developmental psychology, however adult development is considered to be an emerging field, as it only began development during the 1960s. The life span perspective of development is key throughout the unit, and it claims that development should be seen as a lifelong process. Unlike other theories such as original Piagetian perspectives, it does not limit development to childhood and adolescence. The reason for this is that young people tend to experience more similar environments than adults, so are more likely to develop in similar ways, and it is therefore difficult to compartmentalise adult development in the same way as has been done for children. Amongst adult development, there is not a segment of primary importance that requires more emphasis than another time period, and there are 6 key characteristics of the lifespan perspective (although 4 in the textbook, 6 in lecture): 1. Multi-directionality a. Development in different areas can both improve and decrease simultaneously. b. It is not all growth or all decline across all areas. c. This also includes the case for stability. 2. Multi-dimensionality a. This ties in with the biopsychosocial perspective. b. There are multiple domains over which development can occur. 3. Multi-contextual a. Development is influenced by time and culture context. 4. Multi-cultural a. Development is not limited to one culture. 5. Multi-disciplinary a. No one field of expertise has a monopoly on adult development. b. It would take a vast team of professionals to look at all facets of this. 6. Plasticity a. Questions the extent to which change can occur. b. However, emphasises that change can occur in older adulthood. c. Primarily, this applies to the brain. Note that whilst all of these are characteristics of the lifespan perspective, they are influences, not causes of developmental change. Within this, there are also 4 sources of variability that can impact how a person develops: 1. Normative Influences 1

a. Things that happen to everybody around the same time. b. Example: Graduation, retirement. 2. Non-normative Influences a. Things that only happen to a few people at different times. b. Example: Retiring at 30, having children at 55, death of a child/spouse. 3. Witnessed versus Experienced a. Whether somebody witnessed an event or experienced the event. b. Example: Whether somebody saw 9/11 occur on the news, or physically saw the towers fall. 4. Cohort Effect a. Groups of people experience similar things when compared to another cohort. b. Example: Vietnam War, Internet Age etc. As we age, sources of variability increase and become more apparent. We become more different as we get older, and so there are more things that can influence our development in comparison to our childhood. If we are considering generational differences, there are a few to keep in mind. Remember what each generation experienced, and how that would influence their development later in life. For example how the Silent Generation experienced World War II, civil rights movements, the Korean and Vietnamese wars, contrasting how Generation Y experienced the information age and the birth of the internet, alongside the war on terror. Comparatively, Generation Alpha has been the first generation to only ever know a world with devices and the internet – and we don’t know how this will impact development yet. We study ageing so that we can learn how to cope with the increasing amount of older adults on the planet, as medical advances enable better health in old age. By 2018, there will be more older adults than there are children, and we need to be equipped to deal with the economic and social implications of this, for example the diminishing workforce. Additionally, it helps us to combat  ageist stereotypes, such as: 1. Older adults can’t drive. 2. Older adults are stubborn. 3. Older adults are racist. 4. Older adults are senile. 5. Older adults are not productive workers. In reality, the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Ageing showed that a positive perception of ageing can actually increase  lifespan by 7.2 years. So we can see the practical implications of a psychologist’s role here and the impact of negative stereotypes. Whilst studying adult development, a huge amount of fundamental questions arise: 1. Nature versus Nurture 2. Stability versus Plasticity 3. Universal versus Culturally-Determined 4. Continuous versus Discontinuous Naturally, behaviour changes with age, so we also need to consider chronological versus biological ages, and generally how best to define ageing as a concept. As we get older, even our perceptions of age change, so defining it in stages is a challenge. Alternatively, a few different ages have been developed: 1. Chronological Age – age in years 2. Biological age – age according to biological health 2

3. Sociocultural age – age in relation to sociocultural roles/expectations 4. Psychological age – age in relation to how old you mentally feel Also, there are a variety of ways that research can be conducted with older adults – such as cross-sectional, longitudinal, time lag and sequential methods. It is important, however, to consider the barriers for research and how to research appropriately with older adults (this is discussed later on) and also acknowledge that there are certain methodologies that work better than others.

Topic 2: Physiological Development Theories of development help us to understand the things that are happening and form a basis for our hypotheses. They allow for themes to emerge. Mechanistic theories aim to explore the causes of change by assuming that people are reactive to their circumstances. They look at observable environmental influences and use that information to infer why the change has occurred. Psychodynamic theory focuses primarily on personality development, and encompasses both Freud and Erikson’s theories. Organic and biological theories are backed by Piaget,  who borrowed his analogies about cognitive development from biology. These theories place an emphasis on how the brain develops in ageing. The issue with Piaget, however, is that original theories only go to a certain point, and the emphasis is on staged development. Dynamic systems theory includes Bronfenbrenner’s  Social Ecology, which looks at how a network of interactions and interdependencies work among people, institutions and cultural context. Note that social ecological theory is an example of both dynamic and social ecological theories. The meaning of age is varied both according to definitions and according to individuals. As a result, ageing is not a singular process, and as we unpack it, we see more complex layers emerge. There are three different types of ageing, however they are not agreed upon entirely (they’re generally accepted) each of which will be explored as follows: 1. Primary Ageing a. These are universal and inevitable biological processes. b. Effect all members of a species. c. The rate at which it occurs differs. d. Internally generated change. 2. Secondary Ageing a. Things that most, but not all experience. b. This includes smoking, drugs, living rurally, living in the suburbs, UV damage. c. The amount of this changes. d. This can also include disability. 3. Tertiary Ageing a. The rapid deterioration that occurs prior to death. b. Example: Looking much older all of a sudden. Reasons for why we age are explored through 2 main approaches – either programmed theories or stochastic  theories. Programmed theories of ageing claim that 3

we the way we age is determined by a program ‘written’ by our genetics. This directs the ageing process. Comparatively, stochastic theories focus on both internal and external influences that cause damage (otherwise known as ageing). Programmed Theories Evolutionary Ageing is a part of evolution, not biology. If we lived forever, we wouldn’t need to reproduce to survive (so evolution wouldn’t exist). Immunological The immune system is built to only last for a certain amount of time, at which point it will stop working. Time clock Ageing is a biological function controlled by a ‘clock’, so that the passage of time brings you closer to death. This is the same clock that controls growth and reproductive ‘schedules’.

Stochastic Theories Wear and Tear Naturally, our body takes damage through everyday activities (some more than others) which will inevitably cause physical ageing. Rate of Living The faster a person’s metabolism, the shorter their lifespan. You only have a certain amount of heartbeats, so faster heart rate = faster dying. Free Radical We age because cells accumulate damage from free radicals. Links to the membrane hypothesis. Antioxidants combat this.

Physically, we change a lot with age and these changes have implications on the everyday functions and psychological wellbeing of older adults. Within our brain, recent studies have found no change in neuronal density, however there is a small cell increase and a large cell decrease. The thought here is that we sort of use it or lose it. There is also some cell loss in the hippocampus, which could account for some memory loss – but not enough to be major. Plasticity is really key when considering physical changes, as the brain retains its ability for change with old age. It easily compensates for loss/damage, and there is also evidence of new  growth. It is, therefore, important that older adults have access to an enriched environment in which there is constant stimuli to encourage brain maintenance and/or development. Our senses become ‘less sensitive’. There are two theories in relation to mechanisms of cell death. The first, apoptosis, takes a programmed approach, in which after a certain amount of time our cells die off. This accounts for why we don’t actually have tissue death. The second one, membrane hypothesis claims that within the cells, chemical interactions occur that leads to biological ageing (free radical theory).

Topic 3: Theories of Adult Development In theories of development, we focus on cognitive and psychosocial theories, however the biological theories help to explain ageing from a physiological perspective. Cognitive theories help us understand how the way we think influences our development, and psychosocial theories look at mental and emotional impacts. Within the cognitive theories, there are 3 main approaches: Neo-Piagetian, Information Processing and Psychometric. The Neo-Piagetian  approach adds an extra stage to the traditional Piaget approach, which is referred to as “Postformal  Thought”, so 4

particularly the development does not cease after the age of 12 at Formal Operational stage. This new stage involves the recognition that truth can vary between situations. However, when testing adults, adults performed poorly on being at the postformal thought stage. The postformal thought approach should, in theory, include a way of looking at things in the same manner as what is proposed in Perry’s Epistemic Cognition, which allows us to reflect on how we arrived at facts, beliefs and ideas. There are 3 stages of thinking within this: 1. Dualistic Thinking – black or white 2. Relativistic Thinking – truth is relative 3. Commitment within relativistic thinking – the extent to which truth is relative According to Labouvie-Vief however, postformal thought is more about the shift from hypothetical to pragmatic thinking, in which the individual learns to accept  inconsistencies and recognise that logic  and emotions intertwine. The information-processing approach looks at how we actually acquire and use knowledge. It encompasses the Novice-Expert Paradigm, Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence and Schaie’s stage model. According to the Novice-Expert Paradigm, novices use trial and error to gain new knowledge, which experts use many problem solving approaches. Experts are considered to have such in-depth knowledge, that they can engage with information creatively and shift from problem-solving to problem-finding. Practically, you see this in career fields where experts can look more critically at things. Sternberg’s theory of intelligence claims that there are multiple kinds of intelligence; analytical, creative and practical, and that we can have any combination of strengths and weaknesses across those three. Schaie’s stage model proposed that our cognition and other components change as

we grow. Moving from “what do I need to know in order to…” in childhood, to using the knowledge to achieve something, using the knowledge to be responsible and finally being reintergrative in considering why you need to know something. However, this was remodelled later to include “legacy creating” and “reorganizational” stages. The psychometric approach has a traditional focus on defecits and looks primarily at growth and decline. It assumes that development is plastic and at how specific abilities can be measured. Please stop confusing this with psychoanalytic approach you dickhead. The growth/decline approach firstly was developed from original concepts of intelligence that described intelligence as a unitary construct ‘g’. After this, Cattell and 5

Horn’s Theory of Intelligence involved two different components – fluid and crystallised intelligence. Crystallised intelligence involves the skills that depend on accumulated knowledge, experience and verbal skills, whereas fluid intelligence involved skills that depend only on speed of information processing and working memory (among other things). All things considered, the 3 Factor Model of Ageing is arguably the most current one assessing cognition in older adults. The exact combination of these three factors are debated, however generally it includes speed of information processing, working memory capacity and attention/concentration.  Freud is the foundation for a number of adult development theories, however he was convinced that personality was actually set by 5 years old and development finished in adolescence. Nevertheless, he looked at the dynamic nature of motivation. Jung claimed that personality was a balance of inner needs and external environment, and that there were two dimensions upon which adults sat – introversion/extraversion and masculinity/femininity. He claimed that as we get older, we show a preference for one side over the other of each of these. Erikson’s Theory looks at a crisis at each stage of development, and took into account biopsychosocial factors. This is a stage theory that claims there are positive or negative outcomes from each stage, and this was really one of the first to claim that personality adapts and changes beyond adulthood. The adult stages of development are as follows: 1. Intimacy vs Isolation (20-40) a. Fusing your identity with another individual but maintaining sense of self. b. Giving up a part of your identity in order to make a relationship. c. Positive outcome = love d. Negative outcome = loneliness 2. Generativity vs Stagnation (40-60) a. Looking for commitment beyond self and partner. b. Reaching out to others c. Positive outcome = care d. Negative outcome = Self-centred/indulgent 3. Integrity vs Despair (6+) a. Evaluation of own life b. Acceptance of past and future. c. Positive outcome = believing life has a purpose, content, wisdom. d. Negative outcome = Disappointment in life, regret. Levinson’s Seasons of Life is another stage theory, that claims development  happens in ‘eras’ that are less strict than other stages. This only looked at 35-45 year old white men though, so is not necessarily representative. In order to pass to a new era, you must pass through a series of developmental tasks. Such as: 1. Young-old a. Trying to be younger/older than you are 2. Destruction-Creation a. Past countered by a creative desire 3. Masculinity-Femininity 4. Engagement-Separateness

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Finally, Peck’s Necessary Adjustment claimed that you need to pass through 3 necessary adjustment stages: 1. Ego differentiation vs work-role perception 2. Body transcendence vs Preoccupation 3. Ego transcendence vs Preoccupation

Topic 4: Work and Career Development Freud believed in the “ability  to love and work”, meaning that our work plays an  inherent role in our development, and is also something that all people must do eventually. Work is built into society as a means to find and pursue purpose in life. Over time, work and career had changed significantly. When once, career was considered to be life-long and stable, it is now considered to be more  flexible and without boundaries. Whilst we consider careers to now be without boundaries, that also doesn’t mean that the options are unlimited – so it’s important to make that distinction. There are two key types of work – blue collar (manual labour) and white collar (office-based). In terms of levels of work – there are three levels. White collar people tend to be within managerial/professional roles, pink collar roles are stereotypically women’s roles and blue collar roles are typically for men. In terms of an education hierarchy, white collar comes first, then pink followed by blue. Donald Super’s Life Span/Life Space theory uses stages to describe a continuum of occupational maturity that are not isolated from other parts of development. From this, a person’s occupational age could be determined, however this theory was developed whilst careers were still stable – so it’s not especially applicable today. In each of the stages, the ages are a general expectation. The 5 lifespan stages from Super’s theory are as follows: 1. Growth a. Fantasy (Early childhood) b. Tentative (11-14) 2. Exploration (15-24) a. This fits within the school system 3. Establishment (25-44) a. Wanting to establish oneself within their work field b. Time of peak career growth 4. Maintenance (45-65) a. Maintaining the earlier growth 5. Disengagement (65+) a. Beginning to pull away from role There are a few life-space aspects which link experiences of career development and general parts of life. These might include gender, health, parenthood etc. These are things that can not be separated from other aspects of life. For instance, with gender, the ideas of “his” versus “her” jobs are considered, as males experience higher levels of stress if their job doesn’t align with expectations. Vocational choice is influenced by a variety of factors, and there’s not one singular process or theory that accounts for why we choose certain pathways or why those paths 7

may/may not fit us. These influences can include vocational interests, personality (Holland), family expectations (SES also), teachers, rewards (extrinsic vs intrinsic) and gender. According to Holland, there are two dimensions of personality that indicate why a person would/should choose a particular field, as well as 6 vocational categories. This model is well-researched, and is highly predictive of career choice and satisfaction, however it does not determine success. It also doesn’t explain how choice making occurs. People will show a preference for People versus Things, and Data  versus Ideas, which will help the person choose a vocation.

Other influences of career choice can include: 1. Family a. Education, having a family to care for, marital status, SES 2. Genetics a. Strengths and weaknesses 3. Rewards

Additionally, Schaie’s stages can influ...