All Report Writing Lectures PDF

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Lecture 1 1.1 What is a report? A report is a structured form of writing which involves identification of a problem, its detailed examination and an organized provision of all the results and discussions followed by some suggestions and recommendations.

1.1.1 Characteristics of a Report A report is to be structured with the use of headings and subheadings. It should be comprised of sections which can stand independently when it comes to the comprehension of these sections without referring to the other sections. A report is a form of impartial communication based on facts and figures to maintain objectivity in language.

1.1.2 Expectations A report is based on a problem solving hypothetical situation for which a solution has to be provided. This has to be is highlighted as the topic of a report. A report has to be developed keeping in view the fact that it has to be submitted as a proposal. In other words, you have a clear purpose and you prepare your report on this clearly defined objective. Thus, a report has a clearly defined audience (client, manager, etc). A report is given a proper structure and format with the use of headings and subheadings. The information has to be provided with the use of objective language instead of being personal or subjective. That is, the author must avoid the use of first person singular and plural. A good report is based on good research and analysis. This add credibility and authenticity to the results and makes a successful and target-oriented report.

1.1.3 General Purpose of Writing a Report In general, a report is used to provide information which is used to persuade your target audience. This leads to a change in their perspectives. In other words, you are influencing your audience to take a decision. As a result, you initiate an action.

1.1.4 Significance of a Report A report is used to maintain a written account of all the tasks and activities being performed within an organization. Furthermore, a report also acts as a source of written communication within an organization in a hierarchical manner. It can be upward communication starting from employee moving towards the employer or vice versa i.e. downward communication. Likewise, it can be a source of parallel communication i.e. employee to employee (peer to peer communication).

1.1.5 Relevance of a Report A report acts as a mean of internal communication within an organization. It facilitates not only in the planning of a project but also as a source of initiating an action based on a unanimous decision taken by higher authorities. A report becomes the source of an unknown information as it provides results based on an analysis of a subject matter. Thus, it adds information into the existing body of knowledge. It becomes a channel of disseminating information among all the employees of an organization.

1.2 Report Attributes  A report is a methodical, well-planned document which outlines and evaluates a subject or problem.  Essentially, a report is a short, sharp and concise document which is written for a particular purpose and audience.  It basically analyzes a situation or problem, often making recommendations for future actions.  It is a factual paper and needs to be clear and well-structured.

1.3 Features of a Well-Written Report A report reflects a clear picture of your clarity of thought. It also elaborates the fact that your knowledge is comprehensive and you have provided information in a manner which is self-explanatory. The information should not only be comprehensive but also compact. In other words, maximum information is provided with a minimum use of words. The overall structure of a well-written report is presentable and legible.

1.4 Report vs. Essay A report can be compared with an essay as these two formats of writing have certain similarities and differences.

1.5 Similarities Common features of these two formats include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

an introductory section; a detailed body; a conclusive section; analytical thinking; formal style; careful proofreading, and a neat presentation.

1.6 Differences The differences between a report and an essay are as follows: 1. A report is based on the provision of information whereas in an essay, the basic idea is to argue for a particular topic. 2. Factual information is meant to be scanned quickly by the reader in a report since a report is wellstructured by use of numbered headings and subheadings. This is absent in an essay as a reader has to go through the essay completely to understand the subject matter. 3. A report is generally based on short and concise paragraphs whereas an essay uses a more complex sentence structure. 4. A report also includes tables, graphs and other illustrations whereas an essay is simply a collection of words. If needed, informal figures are included. 5. A report begins with a short abstract also known as the executive summary whereas the outline of an essay is presented in the introductory paragraph.

6. A report provides suggestions and recommendations at the end of a detailed analysis and discussion of results whereas an essay concludes by reviewing the arguments and does not always provide recommendations and suggestions.

Lecture 2 2.1 Audience Nature The nature of the audience is essential in determining the structure to be used for drafting a report. There are three different types of readers.

2.1.1 Technical Readers Technical Readers have sufficient knowledge with respect to the subject matter which is why all they require is the factual information which they can use to interpret and draw a conclusion.

2.1.2 Managerial Readers Managerial Readers have a hectic schedule which is why they are interested to get the gist of the content. In other words, they are interested in reading the executive summary of your report.

2.1.3 General Readers General Readers do not have sufficient knowledge with respect to the subject matter. Thus, they require details for the comprehension of information provided within the report.

2.2 Purpose of Report Writing As may already be inferred, a report must provide a valid reason for why it is written. In general, a purpose covers the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Information regarding a subject matter; Instructions regarding the use of some instrument; Description of a survey; Explanation of some event, and Mechanism of collecting data and its analysis, among others.

2.3 Technical Report Writing Technical Report Writing can be defined as: 1. 2. 3. 4.

A written account of events related to a scientific inquiry; As an exercise in effectively communicating technical information; As an interpretation of graphs, tables and figures using language, and As the foundation of drafting a well-written report, which is reflected in the organization of information.

2.4 Characteristics of a Report Report writing involves the use of active voice with the use of active verbs to make it more effective and appealing for the audience. It is written in third person to remove the element of subjectivity from the content. The use of personal pronouns is avoided to maintain objectivity. The conventional structure of a report has page margins of usually one inch on all sides. Credible authors and their content is cited to ameliorate the authenticity of the content and discussion provided within a report.

2.5 Structure of a Report: Overview A report is generally comprised of the following sections:

2.5.1 Title Page A title page is also known as the cover page and provides the details of addresser (From), addressee (To), date of submission and the title itself.

2.5.2 Abstract The cover page or the title page is followed by a short summary of the whole report. This short summary is technically called the executive summary. It is supposed to be qualitative, thus the adjective “executive”. This executive summary should clearly define the purpose and the outcome of the whole study with pertinent results without using any abbreviation to confuse readers.

2.5.3 Table of Contents The Table of Contents (ToC) is a page which provides the details of all the sections and subsections along with a reference of pages where those sections can be studied in a tabulated form.

2.5.4 Introduction The introductory section of a report describes the problem for the readers, elaborates the objectives, explains the methodology used for the collection and analysis of data followed by highlighting the most interesting results to catch the attention of readers and to draw a conclusion. The information is provided using the technique of conciseness.

2.5.5 Design and Procedure This section involves the theoretical description of the research design used for the analysis of the report. This section can also cover the previous testing of the particular design under consideration. No specific measurements are needed at this point. This section to has to be kept brief and clear.

2.5.6 Results and Discussion The results and their interpretation is provided in this section with the application of figures, tables and diagrams etc.

2.5.7 Conclusion This section sums up all the results of the study in a quantitative manner, maintaining brevity. Authors must strive to avoid the use of abbreviations as it will be read by readers who have earlier read only the executive summary without any idea of the body content. The conclusion must simply highlight the studied problem; explain the basic objectives, the procedure to collect and analyze the data and the most important results once again to get the attention of readers

2.5.8 Work Cited/Bibliography A detailed list of all the resources which have been studied to develop understanding of the subject matter may be included in the bibliography. Works on which the report is based on may be cited and included in the work cited or references section. There are different formats of citations to prepare the work cited page or bibliography. Some authors use end notes for this purpose. The inclusion of this section at the

end follows a certain format, as well. Most of the researchers related to social sciences, arts and humanities use the MLA (Modern Language Associations) style whereas the studies based on natural sciences use the APA (American Psychological Associations) style.

2.6 Language of a Report Clarity within a report can be maintained with the use of active verbs rather than the passive verbs. Brevity can be ensured with the use of simple and declarative sentences. Objectivity can be achieved by avoiding the use of first person singular and plural.

2.7 Deductive Report vs. Inductive Report There are two types of report based on the manner of reasoning and drawing conclusion for initiating an action.

2.7.1 Deductive Report This is the form of report where a general information itself is used to draw a specific conclusion. It is used to deliver routine messages with reference to neutral information which is presented openly and clearly.

2.7.2 Inductive Report In this form of report, the discussion precedes the conclusion. In other words, you generalize your conclusion based on a specific discussion at the outset of report. It requires the provision and use of factual information to draw a conclusion. Such types of reports are used in case of informed readers who offer a strong and anticipated resistance with respect to the problem under investigation.

Lecture 3 3.1 Sections of a Report A report is structured according to the following sections: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Title page Executive summary Table of contents Introduction Discussion Conclusion Recommendations Bibliography Appendices

3.1.1 Title Page The title page is the face of a report. It should be clear and proper both in terms of content and formatting so that the reader may form a good idea of what is the report about. There are four basic components that should be present in the title page: 1. 2. 3. 4.

It should have a clear title. It should have date of submission. It should have the detail of the person who has prepared the report, that is, addresser’s name. It should have the addressee’s name. PRELIMINARY REPORT BAKERY

PREPARED FOR MANAGING COMMITTEE HAYATCHI ENTERPRISES

PREPARED BY INCUBE-RESEARCH JANUARY 25, 2012 Figure 1 Sample title page

3.1.2 Executive Summary The next section is executive summary, also known as Abstract. This section provides the gist of the whole report. Findings, objectives and recommendations in the report are put in a nutshell in this section. There are six points that are to be considered for structuring the executive summary: 1. You should be clear about your aims and objectives. Identify them by keeping in view the environment (business/organizational/academia) and the person by whom you have been assigned the task of composing the report. 2. The design and methodology comes next. 3. The findings of the report that you have found after carrying out the analysis should be provided. 4. The conclusion should cover all the important points covered in the main body. 5. A set of recommendations is outlined on the basis of conclusion. 6. Limitations of the report may also be given at the end. As the findings of any report cannot be considered absolute, the limitations may be identified so that other people know the areas where they may work further in future.

Figure 2 Sample Executive Summary, covering purpose, method, result, conclusion and recommendation

3.1.2.1 Points to Consider while composing Executive Summary 1. It is always written in the end when the report is complete in all respects. 2. It should be written in a manner that grabs reader’s attention. 3. Keep in mind the nature of the target audience. The language used to compose the executive summary may be modified according to the audience’s background and level of knowledge. 4. The central idea or theme must be presented in the executive summary. 5. It should clearly define your main aim and purpose of writing the report. 6. Prepare a mind map/business plan so that you are able to compose the report in an orderly manner and within the given time limit.

3.1.3 Table of Contents The Table of Contents is a sequential list of the report’s organizational structure. It is important because it gives reference to the scope of the report and provides references with page numbers. The decimal system for numbering and differentiating different levels of headings should be used. Such numbering also shows that there are subsections of a section.

Figure 3 Sample Table of Contents

3.1.3.1 Level of headings First degree of heading is written using whole numbers; for example, 1. Introduction to Economics The second degree of heading is written using one decimal place: 1.1 Debit and Credit The third degree indicates sub-sub-section and is written as follows: 1.1.1 Expenditure and Finances

3.1.4 Introduction Introduction gives the big picture of the overall report. It builds up the context and sets the scenario in which the study/analysis will be carried for the target reader. The subject matter should be explained in a clear and explicit manner in the Introduction. For example, in a report about the behavioral problems of teenagers of Rawalpindi, the general behavioral problems of these teenagers should be your subject matter. The problem description follows; the main problem/issue to be investigated/explored must be stated clearly in a concise manner in this subsection. For the investigation of the main problem, you set some aims and objectives. These aims and objectives are your research questions whose answers you will try to find through analysis. However, in the introductory section, you indicate the probable answers and

your expected results. Defining the scope of your report comes next. It gives the reader a clear idea of areas your study covers; it makes your study specific and the reader is able to limit his perception in a certain area. Report preview follows scope. This heading informs readers about what is coming ahead in the report. The last heading in the introduction part is Limitations. It indicates the boundaries within which the study shall be carried out; it also mentions the time constraints and specifies the sample. 3.1.4.1

Example 1

Today, many organizations and employees are experiencing the effects of stress on work performance. The effects of stress can be either positive or negative. What is perceived as positive stress by one person may be perceived as negative stress by another, since everyone perceives situations differently. According to Barden (2001), negative stress is becoming a major illness in the work environment, and it can debilitate employees and be costly to employers. Managers need to identify those suffering from negative stress and implement programs as a defense against stress. These programs may reduce the impact stress has on employees' work performance. 3.1.4.2 Example 2 This is a Report on the rise of computer gaming addiction among teenagers. 1. Introduction 1.1 Purpose The purpose of this report is to investigate the reasons behind the rise in computer gaming addiction among teenagers. The report will also recommend preventive measures for computer gaming addiction. 1.2 Background A recent study on game technology (Tan, 2010) shows that nearly 75% of teenagers in Singapore play computer games regularly and the majority of them show signs of addiction. The rise in computer gaming addiction among teenagers is a growing concern and the Ministry of Media Development (MDD) would like to find out the reasons behind this trend. The report was commissioned by the Director of Corporate Communications, Ms Julie Sim, on 31 May 2010. 1.3 Method of Investigation Questionnaires were issued to 100 teenagers from 25 educational institutions on 25 June 2010. Three teenagers who were former addicts were also interviewed to get more in-depth views. References were also made to books and newspaper articles. 1.4 Scope Besides respondents’ profile, this report looks into four possible reasons for the rise in gaming addiction among teenagers: boredom, stress, societal influence and addictive game features.

Lecture 04 4. Report Structure 4.1 Sections A report has the following sections: 1. Title Page 2. Executive Summary 3. Table of Contents 4. Introduction 5. Discussion 6. Conclusion 7. Recommendations 8. Bibliography 9. Appendices In Lecture 03, we finished discussing the Introduction section. In this Lecture 04, we are going to start with the Discussion section.

4.2 Discussion This section goes into the detail of the process through which you have collected your data. When you structure this section, provide all the details of your results and findings. The discussion section varies according to the type of report

4.2.1 Status Report In the discussion part of a Status Report, discuss the problems that were encountered while conducting the study.

4.2.2 Trip report Record your observation and course of action when you are required to compose a trip report in which a survey has been conducted.

4.2.3 Lab report After performing an experiment in lab, state all findings and overall learning in detail here.

4.2.4 Proposal When composing a proposal report, discuss in detail all the feasible solutions of the problem that are going to be investigated in the study.

The overall design of research, the methodology, and tools should be discussed in detail in this section, as it was just touched upon in the Introduction section. In the end, provide recommendations on the basis of findings. Moving on to the second part of Discussion section, reflections and insight on the subject matter can now be included along with the problem that was investigated. However, opinion as a writer of the report s...