AP Biology notes unit 1 PDF

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Lesson 1:

● Taxonomy is a branch of biology that deals with the identification, naming, and classification of living things. ● The Linnaeus system of classification includes seven levels—kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Each of these levels is called a taxon or taxonomic category. Linnaeus's system of classification divided all living organisms into two kingdoms—Animalia and Plantae. But it is not an all-inclusive system because many life forms have characteristics that qualify them to be placed under both kingdoms. ● Binomial nomenclature assigns every organism a two-part scientific name. The first part of the name comes from the genus and the second part from its species. The rules of binomial nomenclature state that the scientific name is always written in italics, the genus is always a noun and is capitalized, and the species is a descriptive term and is lowercased. ● Although Linnaeus' binomial nomenclature is used as a standard today, newer and more accurate classification systems, such as the Six Kingdom System of Classification, have replaced his two-kingdom classification system. ● Phylogeny is a modern system of classification that maps the evolutionary development of an organism. It indicates the lines of descent of the organism and its relationships with other organisms. ● Living organisms use DNA and RNA to pass on information to the next generation. Similarities in these molecules provide an excellent way of establishing relationships between organisms at the gene level. The DNA of different organisms in form of molecular clocks can also be compared to determine their evolutionary history. Changes in sequences are used to develop ideas about the evolutionary divergence of species.

Lesson 2: ● taxonomy, the field of biology that classifies organisms in different taxa (singular: taxon) based on their characteristics ● Linnaeus's binomial nomenclature, which gives each species a two–word name, Genus + species ● phylogeny, which places a species in a group, or clade, based on a shared character ● The Tree of Life, a project that aims to explain the evolutionary history—phylogeny—of all living and extinct forms over the past 3.5 billion years ●

cladistic analysis, a method of determining evolutionary relationships by grouping species that share a common set of characters that are quantifiable and inherited

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A clade, a group that includes an ancestor and all the organisms, both living and extinct, that are descendants of that ancestor

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A cladogram, a diagram that shows the network of evolutionary relationships as suggested by the data in the cladistic analysis. The points where a cladogram branches are called nodes.

Lesson 3: Prokaryotes are unicellular microorganisms, which can be classified as Eubacteria or Archaebacteria. Eubacteria are found everywhere around us. They have four phyla: Cyanobacteria, Spirochetes, Proteobacteria and Gram–positive bacteria. Archaebacteria are found in the intestines of living beings, in water bodies with high salt content, on ocean floors, and in volcanic vents. They have three phyla: Methanogens, Extreme Halophiles, and Thermoacidophiles. An understanding of the importance of bacteria has led to changes in classification, elevating bacteria to the domain level. Eubacteria and Archaebacteria can be identified by their shape, movement, the chemical structure of their cell wall and the way they use energy. Bacteria can be linear, circular, or spiral. Bacterial movement occurs through whiplike structures called flagella, which are composed of a protein (flagellin) that rotates to propel the bacteria. The chemical structure of cell wall can be identified by a method called Gram Staining. Depending on the form of nutrition, Prokaryotes can be Heterotrophs or Autotrophs. Bacteria also use different processes of cellular respiration to obtain oxygen. Reproduction in prokaryotes occurs in two ways, asexually and sexually. Prokaryotes can be both harmful and useful to humans. While they can spoil our food and cause certain diseases, they can also act as decomposers and nitrogen fixers.

Lesson 4: Protists are of three types: Animal-like protists, Plant-like protists, and Fungi-like protists. Protozoans are an important and widely distributed group of organisms within kingdom Protista. Protozoans are unicellular animal-like protists living in aqueous environments. They may be free-living, parasitic, or symbiotic. Most protozoans are heterotrophs. They reproduce asexually by binary fission. In some, conjugation, which is a primitive form of sexual reproduction, allows exchange of genetic material. Protozoans cause harmful diseases in humans such as malaria and amoebic dysentery. However, they are important members of the ecosystem due to their role in the food chain and in decomposition. Some form symbiotic associations with other organisms.

Phylum

Characteristics

Examples

Zooflagellata

movement using flagella; single, large, nucleus; some symbionts; cyst formation seen

Trypanosoma, Trichonympha

Sarcodina

movement using pseudopodia; no definite body shape; number of nuclei varies

Amoeba, Elphidium

Ciliata

movement using cilia; binucleate; trichocysts present; conjugation seen

Paramecium, Vorticella

Sporozoa

incapable of movement; endoparasitic, in more than one host; both sexual and asexual reproduction seen

Plasmodium, Monocystis

Lesson 5: Algae are plantlike protists that contain the green pigment chlorophyll. They are autotrophic in their nutrition. They can be unicellular, multicellular, or live in colonies. The Euglenophytes, Chrysophytes, and Dinoflagellates phyla comprise the unicellular forms of algae. Euglenophytes include the unicellular aquatic algae that live in freshwater ponds and lakes, have flagella, and are motile. They have an intricate cell membrane called a pellicle and an eyespot that helps them to find sunlight to power photosynthesis. Chrysophytes include the yellow–green and golden–brown algae found in freshwater. They have the pigment fucoxanthin and have cell walls composed of pectin and cellulose. They store food in the form of oil. Diatoms, which have a glasslike cell wall, often with beautiful sculpturing, are Chrysophytes. Dead diatoms form diatomite, which is used as an insulating material, in making dynamite and other explosives, and for filters, abrasives, and similar products. Dinoflagellates are an important component of plankton and show phosphorescence visible at night in tropical seas. They are also known as fire plants. They are covered by stiff plates and have two flagella.

Characteristics of Phyla of Multicellular Algae

Characteristi c

Rhodophytes

Phaeophytes

Chlorophytes

Some are Structure

complex multicellular body

range from microscopic organisms to giant kelp

unicellular, some live in colonies, and few are multicellular.

Chlorophyll Type

chlorophyll a

chlorophyll a and c

chlorophyll a and b

Other Pigments

phycobilins

fucoxanthin

none

Food Storage

floridean starch

laminarin

starch

Cell Wall Composition

cellulose + agar and carrageenan

cellulose + algin

cellulose

Color

red

brown

green

The Ecology of Algae Algae play important roles in the environment and in industry. Algae provide the bulk of the earth's oxygen supply through photosynthesis. In all aquatic food chains, algae are the primary producers of food and provide energy to power the ecosystem. They also provide shelter for marine life, especially the coral ecosystems. Some red algae are popular as food for humans, and many substances, such as agar, carrageenan, and alginates, produced by algae are very important to the chemical, cosmetic, food, paper, pharmaceutical, and textile industries.

Lesson 6: Fungi consist of mycelia, which are networks of branched hyphae adapted for absorption. The sporangium, which releases spores, is the reproductive structure of the fungi. Fungi have the ability to reproduce both sexually and asexually. Asexual reproduction takes place by fragmentation, fission, budding, and spore formation. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of the plus and minus mating types. Fungi are important as decomposers of dead and decaying organic matter. However, they are harmful as parasites causing diseases. In plants, corn smut, mildew, and wheat rust cause diseases. Cordyceps sinensis causes deadly infections in grasshoppers. In humans, deuteromycete fungi cause athlete's foot, ringworm, and other diseases, while the fungus Candida albicans causes thrush and yeast infections.

Four Phyla of Fungi

Phylum

Characteristi cs

Examples

Reproductio n

Zygomycota (common molds)

formation of zygospore lack cell wall

Rhizopus stolonifer (black bread mold)

spores in sporangiophor es in asexual phase and zygosporangiu m in sexual phase

Ascomycota (sac fungi)

sexual spores borne internally in sacs called asci

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus flavus,Candida albicans

conidia on conidiophores in asexual phase and spores in sacs,

or asci, in sexual phase

Basidiomycot a (club fungi)

Deuteromycot a (imperfect fungi)

elaborate fruiting body called basidiocarp

sexual phase not clearly known

Mushrooms, puffballs, earthstars, shelf fungi, jelly fungi, rusts

conidia on conidiophores in asexual phase and basidiocarps in sexual phase

Penicillium, ringworm, and athletes foot fungus

sexual phase not clearly known, only asexual mode of reproduction known

Lesson 7: Remember that the goal of a literary interpretation is to write a well-supported argument about a work's meaning. A strongly written literary interpretation ● goes well beyond the obvious ● is engaging and rich enough for extended interpretative attention ● incorporates ample textual evidence to back up the essay's main claims ● answers the question "How?" using sophisticated reasoning to explain the specific way in which the textual evidence supports the essay's main claims When you write an essay, your job is to act like a literary detective to analyze a work and, in turn, interpret its meaning. Start the writing process by discovering ideas. Then gather evidence, write the thesis statement, and draft the paper. And avoid these common pitfalls: ● developing a thesis statement that is too broad ● developing a thesis statement that is too narrow

● writing a plot summary ● restating the obvious ● making vague or abstract claims ● making claims that can't be supported by textual evidence (i.e., quotes or paraphrased sections)

Lesson 8: Throughout this lesson, you learned that characters are an integral element of fiction. Characters help to establish and develop plot, convey themes, and advance a work's meaning. Characterization is the method or approach by which an author develops characters. It can be direct, provided through the narrator's or other characters' direct descriptions about characters, or indirect, communicated by what the character thinks, feels, or does. Authors use character traits, or intrinsic attributes, to: ● develop round characters ● provide insight to the characters ● help explain why characters may think and act in a certain way ● shed light on characters' beliefs, values, relationships, and motivations ● tell you more about other characters by comparison ● help readers predict what might happen And, as you know, not all characters are alike. Those without substance are flat, while well-developed characters are round. Static characters don't evolve, whereas dynamic characters do. You also learned that dialogue is a great tool for advancing characterization. A solid understanding of these elements will help you formally analyze any character and expand your list of favorite memorable characters!...