A&p exam 2 objectives - Study guide for exam 2, Dr. Cummings, Fall 2016 PDF

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Study guide for exam 2, Dr. Cummings, Fall 2016...

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Anatomy and Physiology BIO 2220 Dr. Cummings Exam 2 Lecture Objectives Tissues Discuss the classifications of epithelial tissues—how and why they are classified as they are— and the functions of each.  Covering/lining o Numbers of layers  Simple = one layer; absorption and filtration; not a lot of friction  Stratified = more than one layer of cells; exposed to friction; Naming is based on shape of cells on apical surface  Pseudostratified = only one layer, but looks like more than one, aren’t exposed to a lot of movement; named by shape of cells on apical surface o Shape  Squamous  Cuboidal  Columnar  Transitional - Dome shaped cells - Line hollow cavities o Urinary bladder  dome shaped when bladder is empty, flatten when bladder fills  Glandular o Number of cells  Unicellular  Multicellular o Functional  Merocrine - Cells produce secretory product  packaged into a vescicle by Golgi  released into duct by exocytosis product travels; cell has not been damaged, stays active; salivary, sweat, pancreas  Holocrine - Cell produces product and stores it as an inclusion  cell sloughed off into duct  bursts and releases contents  cell dies; cell has died and is replaced by mitosis; sebaceous glands Differentiate glandular epithelium from covering and lining epithelium.  Covering and lining – all free body surfaces, anything exposed to the environment  Glandular – one or more cells that produce and secrete a specific product Define gland, and explain the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands.  Gland – cell or group of cells of specialized epithelium that secrete substances into ducts, onto surfaces or into the blood

o Exocrine: secrete into a duct  Sweat glands, gall bladder o Endocrine: ductless, secrete hormones which travel in the bloodstream  Thyroid o The pancreas has an endocrine portion and an exocrine portion List the different classes of connective tissue, and identify the structural elements possessed by all classes.  All connective comes from the mesenchyme (embryonic origin)  All connective tissue possess cells and fibers embedded in a background of matrix  Connective tissue proper o Areolar, dense regular, elastic  Cartilage o Elastic cartilage, hyaline, fibrocartilage  Bone o Spongy and compact  Blood Compare and contrast the structure, location, and function of the three types of muscle tissue.  Skeletal o Striated o Multiple nuclei  Cells merge during embryonic development, nuclei are pushed toward edges o Voluntary  Cardiac o Striated o Only one nucleus o Involuntary o Intercalated discs  Communication junction between neighboring cells  Channel proteins are fused with a gap junction  connexon  Allows for heart cells to beat together  Smooth o No striations o Only one nucleus o Stretched nucleus o Involuntary Identify the criteria used to classify muscle tissue.  Classification criteria o Striations o Nervous control o Number of nuclei

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Cells modified for contraction Provide movement and/or heat Sarcolemma = plasma membrane of a muscle cell; modified lipid bilayer Sarcoplasm = cytoplasm of a muscle cell

Identify the functional and supportive components of nervous tissue.  Neurons o Detect stimuli o Stimulus energy  electrical energy (impulses) o 50% of the tissue are neurons  Neuroglia o Other 50% of nervous tissue o “Nerve glue” o Supports and connects neurons Membranes Describe the structure and function of cutaneous, mucous, serous, and synovial membranes.  Cutaneous – skin o Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium  Keratinized = accumulated protein keratin  Cells start to protein keratin, cellular inclusion in squamous epithelium cells  Top layer is dead and full of keratin o Attached to dense irregular connective tissue (underneath) o Exposed to air o “dry” o Basale = germinal cells that are dividing  Mucous – body cavities that are open to the external environment o Most contain stratified squamous or simple columnar epithelium o Attached to areolar connective tissue o Line body cavities that are open to the exterior o Moist  secretes mucus o Absorption and secretion  Serous – lining the insides of the body that are not open to the external environment o Simple squamous epithelium resting on areolar connective tissue o Line closed ventral body cavities o Moist  secretes serous fluid o Where leaked blood accumulates o Hyaluronic acid = carbohydrate-rich secretion, water-based  Combines with fluid from capillaries to produce a viscous fluid that provides lubrication  Allows cavity to slip around organs when moving to keep organs stable o Double layered membrane  Parietal = body cavity

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Visceral = organ

Discuss the processes involved with normal tissue repair.  Inflammation  Organization  Regeneration and fibrosis o Regeneration = replacing the damaged tissue with the same kind of tissue o Fibrosis = replacing the damaged tissue with fibrous tissue  Scarring o First, you get undifferentiated tissue, which gets replaced with the same kind of tissue or with fibrous connective tissue  Epithelial regenerates, muscle does not List the factors that regulate tissue repair, and identify the role of each.  Inflammatory events  Organization events Identify the embryonic origin of the different tissue types.  Ectoderm = dermis, nervous  Endoderm = mucous membranes  Mesoderm = all connective tissues, muscle Epithelial tissue comes form all three germ layers Integumentary System Identify the regions of the skin, and discussion the composition of each.  Epidermis o Stratified squamous epithelium o Protection  Dermis o Deep to the epidermis o Fibrous connective tissue o Blood vessels  vascularized  Hypodermis o Technically beneath the skin o Adipose tissue o Thickness increases with age, loses elasticity Differentiate thick and thin skin.  Thin skin = basale, spinosum, granulosum, corneum  Thick skin = basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, corneum o Heels, palms, places of high friction List the cell types found within the epidermis, and identify their functions.

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Keratinocytes o Make up majority of epidermis o Undergo keratinization: 2 weeks, epidermis is entirely replaces about every 3525 days Melanocytes = melanin, give skin color Langerhan’s cells o Produced in bone marrow o Special cell that provides an immune function for the skin Merkel cells o Border between epidermis and dermis o Sensory receptor cells o Respond to light touch

List the factors that contribute to skin color. Skin color is determined by pigments:  Melanin  Carotene o Dermal pigment, results in yellow/orange  Hemoglobin o Blood pigment Discuss the embryological development of the integumentary system.  Epidermis = ectoderm  Dermis = mesoderm  Hypoderm = mesoderm Compare and contrast the various glands found with the skin.  Sudoriferous glands o Eccrine o Apocrine o Ceruminous  Modified apocrine gland  Only in ear  Protects inner ear o Mammary  Modified sweat gland, produces milk  Sebaceous glands – produce sebum o Sebum = oil, lipid-based secretion o Allows hair to be bendable o Softens and lubricates skin/hair o Kills bacteria o Responds to hormonal changes Describe the structure of the nail.

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Nail body Free edge Lanula Nail fold Nail bed Nail matrix Eponychium Hyponychium

List the parts of a hair follicle, and explain their functions.  Follicle o External root sheath = connective tissue (dermis) o Internal root sheath = epidermal; hair growth occurs from here o Bulb = larger portion at the base o Papilla = indentation in the bulb o Arrector pili  Muscle at the base of each hair; smooth/involuntary; respond to being cold and excited  Root: touch sensitive nerve endings at the base of hair follicles  Shaft o Medulla = middle o Cortex = middle, dark circles; give pigment o Cuticle = dead, stacked cells on outside List the structures that contribute to tactile sensation.  Merkel’s discs = light touch, epidermis side of the epidermal/dermal border  Meissner’s corpuscles = dermal papillae (dermis), touch-sensitive nerve endings, light touch  Pacinian corpuscles = deep in dermis, deep pressure, adapt (stop sending signal after continual exposure) Discuss the classifications of burns. Burn – tissue damage caused by intense heat, electricity, radiation, or chemicals that results in protein denaturation - Can lead to cell death - Dehydration and loss of electrolytes = most significant concern  decreased urinary output and kidney failure - Bacterial infection = system effect - Shock - Can destroy blood vessels 1. First-degree  Sunburn  Redness, swelling, and pain  Partial-thickness  Heals in 2-3 days

2. Second-degree  Partial thickness  Epidermis and parts of the upper dermis  Redness, swelling, pain, blistering  Heals in 3-4 weeks 3. Third-degree  Full-thickness  Charred skin, lost entire function  No pain because sensory receptors are destroyed  Can only be repaired through a tissue graft Identify the various skin disorders by discussing the abnormal physiology that causes them.  Acne o Inflammation of sebaceous glands o Staph infection  Lupus o Auto-immune disease  immune system attacks healthy part of the body o Named for lesions that look like wolf bits o Butterfly rash o Post-pubescent female issue  Psoriasis o Itchy, scaly skin o Research suggests that it is auto-immune o Chronic outbreaks that can be triggered by:  Trauma  Bacterial infection (not necessarily of the skin)  Hormonal changes  Stress o Can be treated with steroids  Decubitus ulcers (bed sores) o Caused by constant interruption of blood flow  tissue dies (necrotic)  Vitiligo o Patchy distribution where there is an absence of melanin (pigment) o Probably auto-immune  Albinism o Body doesn’t make pigment at all o Genetic o Does not have the gene that produces tyrosinase  Freckles o Patchy concentration of melanocytes o More common in fair-skinned people  Birth marks o Unknown cause, accumulation of dermal blood vessels

Add to the understanding of wound healing.

Bone Identify the tissues that make up the skeletal system.  Cartilage o Perichondrium  Outer covering of cartilage  Dense irregular connective tissue  Rich in blood and nerves, supplies cartilage o Hyaline cartilage = most abundant  Rings of trachea  Costal cartilage  Larynx  External nose o Elastic cartilage  External ear (pinna)  Epiglottis o Fibrocartilage  Extra pad on articular cartilage  Meniscus  Between vertebra  Bone (almost all bone starts out as cartilage and gets ossified Differentiate appositional and interstitial growth of bone. Appositional growth = from the edge  Perichondria cells secrete new matric, which leads to new space where chondrocytes move in  Cells closest to cartilage make new cartilage Interstitial = from within the cartilage  Due to chondrocytes  divide and secrete new matrix Name the skeletal divisions and bone classification. List an example from each group. Skeletal divisions:  Axial – skull  Appendicular – femur Bone classification:  Long bone = upper and lower limbs, except the patella, carpals, and tarsals  Short bone = wide as they are long, carpals and tarsals; sesamoid bone  Flat bone = sternum, scapula, rubs, skull  Irregular bone = don’t fit in other categories; vertebrae Describe the anatomical structure of each classification of bone.  Long bones o Diaphysis = shaft

 Bone marrow in medullary cavity in diaphysis  Yellow marrow = adipose tissue; storage place for fat, lightens the bone o Epiphyses  Proximal epiphysis is closer to the midline - No medullary cavity, spongy bone  Distal epiphysis is further from the midline  Epiphyseal plate is site of bone growth  Epiphyseal line is the remnant of the plate when full grown o Membranes  Periosteum = layer of connective tissue that covers the outside of bone - Outer portion = dense irregular connective tissue - Inner potion = osteogenic tissue - Osteoblasts build matrix that become bone; bone producing - Osteoclasts consume bone  Endosteum = lining on the inside of the bone - also has osteogenic tissue List the functions of bone.  Support – weight of the entire body  Protection – skull protects brain, vertebra protect spinal cord  Movement – locomotion produced with skeletal muscles  Mineral storage – calcium and phosphate  Hematopoiesis – production of blood cells in red bone marrow Explain the organic and inorganic components of bone and the function of each.  Organic o Cells – osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts o Osteoid – matrix without the mineral  Collagen fibers, glycoproteins  Proteoglycans – central core of protein; two chains of proteins that run through the central core - “test tube brush” - holds background matrix together  Inorganic o Hydroxyapatites  Mineral salt  65% of the mass of the bone  Hardens the bone  ossification Describe the processes of intramembranous and endochondral ossification, and list the bones that are formed by each process. Intramembranous ossification:  Bone formation ALWAYS starts with spongy bone  Trabeculae (holes in spongy bone) are formed  trabeculae start to fill with blood vessels  spongy bone that is produced is filled with red bone marrow  trabecular

plates are broken down by osteoclasts (compact bone is formed)  mesenchymal cells that were in the membrane become periosteum (dense irregular connective tissue) Endochondral ossification:  Occurs within a hyaline cartilage model  Trigger to start ossifying = arrival of a blood vessel  Bone-shaped templates made up of hyaline cartilage  All bones in body except skull bones and clavicles are formed through endochondral ossification  Arrival of blood vessel that penetrates just the perichondrium  osteoblasts form at site of blood vessel arrival, form a ring around the template called a bone collar  as bone callar is formed, it is called the primary center of ossification  osteoblasts secrete matrix  cartilage cells burst, raises pH and changes solubility of calcium  calcium being delivered by blood  calcium becomes insoluble and hardens  Starts on the outside, goes deeper and deeper until we have a wedge (bone) on the inside of the bone  Spongy bone is ultimately formed  When the blood vessel reaches the middle of the template, it is called a periosteal bug  Have to open up the medullary cavity in order to reach the center (osteoclasts break down the spongy bone to make the medullary cavity)  Middle moves toward ends, ends move towards middle  causes epiphyseal plates between ends of bones and middle called; wide plates don’t close until puberty  Secondary ossification = same process except no bone remodeling, periosteum is under the articular cartilage, spongy bone maintained to keep the bone white Describe the processes of growth in length and width of bone. Growth in length:  Longitudinal growth, typically long bones  Cartilage in epiphyseal plate = site of bone growth to allow them to get longer  Cells on diaphyseal side divide and push plate away  Older cells deeper toward diaphysis enlarge, die, and calcify  Spongy bone is formed  Osteoclasts digest cells to lengthen medullary cavity Growth in width:  Appositional growth, maintain medullary cavity  Osteoblasts beneath periosteum deposit bone on external surface just beneath periosteum  Osteoclasts on endosteal surface remove bone just beneath endosteum  Marrow cavity enlarges  Put bone on outside, take bone out on inside so that bones don’t become too heavy Discuss the process of bone remodeling.  Occurs at periosteum and endosteum  Occurs to grow bone and to help maintain mineral balances  Coordinated activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts  Bone deposit o Osteocytes produce matrix devoid of minerals

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o Accumulation of calcium and phosphate ions trigger production of hydroxyapatite (mineral salt, specifically calcium phosphate from blood, which is from your diet) o Catalyzes crystallization of calcium salts in area Bone resorption o T lymphocytes activate osteocytes to secrete enzymes that digest matrix  Enzymes = protein produced in ER and then put into a vesicle and released as an enzyme; dependent on change in pH) o Also secrete hydrochloric acid that converts calcium salts to soluble form o Digested matric and dissolved minerals are released into interstitial fluid on non-bone side of osteoclast and eventually enter the blood stream

List the factors that control bone growth, and identify the effects of each. Pay particular attention to the role of hormones on calcium.  Diet o Minerals (calcium and phosphate)  Vitamins o Need vitamin D to get calcium into bloodstream, can come from food or skin in sunlight  Inactive form from sun converted to active by the liver  Hormones o Parathyroid and thyroid secretions function in feedback loop  Parathyroid = PTH; regulates blood calcium levels  When blood calcium levels are low, the parathyroid gland secreted PTH, which activates osteoclasts  negative feedback loop  Thyroid – calcitonin; produced when blood calcium levels are high and shut off osteoclasts, promotes calcium deposition in the matric, calcitonin most active in pregnant women o Chemicals only active at sites of stress  bones that are under more stress are more active o Stresses determine location of hormonal influence o Growth hormone: stimulates growth, aid in bone growth o Testosterone/estrogen: aids in bone growth, closes epiphyseal plate  Growth spurt as sex hormones begin to secrete  Growth stops post puberty, except nose, jaw, face, etc List the types and characteristics of fractures.  Partial/incomplete – doesn’t go all the way through o Greenstick – partial fracture, one side of the bone is broken and the other is bent; common in children because bones are softer than in adults  Complete – broken all the way through  Simple (closed) – when a bone doesn’t cause the skin to break, even when completely broken  Compound (open) – skin is broken and bone is pushed through; created an entry for pathogens into the bone and bone

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Displaced – two ends of bone are not in line with each other; requires alignment to “set” the fracture Comminuted – splinters accumulate at the site of the break; pulverized Spiral – twisted apart Impacted – one part of the bone is driven forcefully into another part of the bone Pathological – due to disease, i.e. bone cancer

Describe the events of bone repair. 1. Fracture hematoma forms  When we break the bone, we also break the blood vessels, so a fracture hematoma is formed to prevent the loss of blood 2. Callus forms from hematoma  Fibrocartilagenous; basically granulation tissue 3. Remodeling  Osteoblast activity  begin the reconstruction, deposited in fibrocartilagenous tissue, ends up giving you trabeculae in spongy bone  Reopen medullary cavity  Stronger at site of break than before break Identify the effects of aging on bone.  Decrease in protein formation o Slower rate than when young o Less matrix produced by bones, weaker matrix  brittle bones  Loss of calcium o Decreases osteoblast activity as a result of decreased sex hormones o Bone is formed the same way, just not as strong  Loss of estrogen causes thinning of the bone  osteoporosis Identify the causes and effects of the bone disorders discussed in class.  Rickets: child doesn’t have enough vitamin D in diet, bone will stay soft  diaphysis failed to ossify o Epiphysis is enlarged because the cartilage is kept o Bowed legs  Osteomalacia: lack of vitamin D in adults o Demineralization of bones  softens and weakens  Padget’s disease: excessive bone deposition o Bone deforminites and asymmetries o Could be stimulated by a viral infection in the bone

Skeletal System Differentiate the axial and appendicular skeletons, identifying which bones belong to each division.  Axial = 80 bones o 28 skull

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 8 head  14 face  6 ossicles o Hyoid bone o 26 vertebrae o 25 thorax Appendicular = 126 bones o 6 girdles (points of attachments of limbs o 60 upper extremities o 60 lower extremities

List the functio...