AP Human Geography Chapter 8 Political Geography Notes, Rubenstein (Cultural Landscape) PDF

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All notes regarding chapter 8 of AP Human Geography and Cultural Geography at IVC. Notes taken directly from Rubenstein's AP edition of the Cultural Landscape....

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CHAPTER 8: Political Geography Key Issue 1: Where are States Distributed? 1. Introducing Political Geography ●

A state is an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an official government. ○

Government has control over internal / foreign affairs.

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Contains a permanent population, also known as a country.

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California is a subdivision, like other states in the US. ■

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Example: Canada, North Korea, Iraq.

Microstates are known as states with very small land areas. ○

Vatican City is the world’s smallest microstate, only 0.44 square kilometers. ■

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Example: Vatican City, San Marino, Andorra, etc.

Other smaller U.N. member states are majority islands, like the Maldives and Micronesia.

2. Challenges in Defining States ●

Sovereignty means a state has independence from control of its internal affairs by other states. ○

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A good example of a formal region; affairs managed by national government.

Korea: One State or Two? ○

Divided between Democratic People’s Republic and Republic.

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Two zones created by the US after defeat of Japan in WWII.

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North Korea invaded the South in 1950, Korean War, N.K. poor state.

China and Taiwan: One State or Two? ○

According to both Taiwan and China’s government, Taiwan is not sovereign.

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Current conflict arises from a civil war between the Nationalists and the Communists → Nationalists lost and fled to Taiwan.

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U.N. voted to change government to communist China in 1970s.

Senkaku / Diaoyu Islands: Who is Sovereign? ○

China, Taiwan, and Japan all claim sovereignty over several small uninhabited islands in the East China Sea.

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Japan currently controls the islands, China and Taiwan claim they historically belonged to them.

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Sahrawi Republic / Western Sahara: Who is Sovereign? ○

Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic / Western Sahar is recognized by most African countries as sovereign.

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Morocco claims the territory, built a 2,700-kilometer wall around it.

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Polisario Front operates in the vast, U.N. unable to reach a resolution.

Key Issue 2: Where are Nation-States Difficult to Create? 1. Development of States ●

Ancient States ○

A nation-state is a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity. ■

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Example: North and South Korea, Japan, and Germany.

Development of states traced to Fertile Crescent, land/sea communications. ■

Evolved into the world’s first Mesopotamian city-states, which is a sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside. ●

Periodically, one city or tribe would dominate → succession of empires by Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonias, Persians.

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Medieval States ○

Political stability reached its peak with Roman Empire, controlled Europe/Southwest Asia + Africa.

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Collapsed in 5th century → fragmented, monarchs take over estates. ■

The consolidation of neighboring estates under the unified control of a monarchy formed the basis for modern development.

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States in the Twentieth-Century Europe ○

At the time, it was mainly ruled by emperors, kings, and queens.

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Following WWI, leaders met at Versailles Conference to redraw Europe. ■

Geographer Isaiah Bowman played major role (Wilson’s advisor).

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Created new states, adjusted boundaries, clear cut nation-states.

2. Nation-States and Multinational States ●

Self-determination is the concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves. ○

Ethnic groups have been pushed to create nation-states from this desire.

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Example: The US broke free from the UK after they abused their power. They wanted to create their own government.

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Multiethnic and Multinational States ○

Political scientist James Fearon measured the extent of ethnic diversity. ■

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A multiethnic state has multiple ethnicities; all states are technically multiethnic. ■

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Eleven of least diverse are in Europe, 18 of most diverse are in Africa.

Prime Example: Belgium and the US.

A multinational state has more than one ethnicity with traditions of self-determination and self-government. ■

Prime Example: US, India, UK, Russia, Austria-Hungary, the USSR and Yugoslavia.

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Peaceful multinational states have ethnic groups control different governmental functions based on their locations.

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Multiethnic Revival in Europe ○

1930s, German Socialists claimed German-speaking Europe should be unified. ■

UK declares war, France joins after Polish invading, not a German state.

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Defeated in WW2, two Germanys existed, massive forced migration. ●

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Yugoslavia has been a principal example for a failed nation-state.

In multinational status, some ethnicities try to dominate another. ■

Less numerous forced to assimilate with cultural characteristics.

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Karl Marx: nationalism was a means for dominant classes to retain power.

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21st century, ethnic identity becomes important: ■

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Czechoslovakia ●

Two nation-states (Czechia and Slovakia).

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Czechs and Slovaks make up 150 kilometers.

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Suffer from poor internal communications.

Prorupted States: Access or Disruption ○

A compact state with a large projecting extension is a prorupted state.

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Created for 2 principal reasons: ■

Provide a state with access to a resource, such as water.

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Separate two states that would otherwise share a boundary.

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Examples: Italy, Thailand, Laos, Norway.

Perforated State: South Africa ○

A perforated state is a state that completely surrounds another state. ■

The surrounded state may face problems of dependence or interference from the surrounding state. ●

EG: Lesotho is completely surrounded by South Africa and depends on it for the export of goods.

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Fragmented States: Problematic ○

A fragmented state includes several discontinuous pieces of territory.

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Two types: separated by water or intervening states. ■

Water: Tanzania, created in 1964 as a union.

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Intervening State: Angola, divided by the Congo proruption.

Landlocked States

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A landlocked state lacks a direct outlet to a sea because it is completely surrounded by several other countries. ■

Many landlocked states in Africa because it is a remnant of the colonial era with Britain/France.

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Landlocked states export goods through land-based transport.

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Example: Vatican City, San Marino, Lesotho.

5. Governing States ●

National Scale: Regime Types ○

National governments can be classified as democratic, autocratic, or anocratic. ■

Democracy: Citizens elect leaders and can run for office.

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Autocracy: A country run according to the interests of the ruler rather than the people.

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Anocracy: A country that is not fully democratic or fully autocratic; a mix.

According to the Center of Systemic Peace, the three systems differ in three essential elements:

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Selection of leaders

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Citizen Participation

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Checks and Balances

The world has generally become more democratic. Three reasons for the spread of democracy include: ■

Replacement of irrelevant monarchies with elected governments that broaden rights/liberties.

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Widening of participation in policy-making to all citizens through rights to vote and to serve in the government.

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The diffusion of democratic government structures created in Europe/America to other countries.

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State Fragility Index measures the effectiveness of the government, as well as its perceived legitimacy. ■

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Most fragile states are clustered in sub-Saharan Africa.

Local Scale: Unitary and Federal States

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Governments of states are organized according to two approaches. ■

Unitary states place most power in the hands of central governments.

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Federal states allocate strong power to local units of government.

Unitary States ■

Works best in nation-states characterized by few cultural differences.

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Sometimes adapted by multinational states to create nationalistic values. ●

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Good example: France has a long tradition of unitary gov.

Federal States ■

Multinational states may adopt a federal system to empower different nationalities.

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Local governments draw boundaries that correspond with regions of different ethnicities.

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Most large states are federal: US, Brazil, India, Russia, Canada.

6. Electoral Geography ●

Redrawing legislative boundaries to benefit the party in power is called gerrymandering. It takes three forms: ○

Wasted vote: opposition supporters are spread across many districts, but in the minority.

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Excess vote: opposition supporters are concentrated in a few districts.

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Stacked vote: distant areas of like-minded voters are linked through oddly shaped districts.

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Stacked vote gerrymandering has been especially attractive for creating districts inclined to ethnic minorities. ○

Largest ethnic groups in the US vote Democratic.

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Majority African or Hispanic districts basically guarantee the election of a Democrat.

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On the other hand, Republicans support stacked districts because they are better able to draw favorable boundaries.

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Redrawing of boundaries in most European countries is entrusted to independent commissions.

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Create compact and homogenous districts without regard to politics.

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Iowa is an exception to the gerrymandering practice.

Gerrymandering is illegal, but the Supreme Court ruled that already oddly shaped districts did not have to be removed.

7. Geography of Gerrymandering ●

According to a study by the Washington Post, North Carolina has the highest extent of gerrymandering: ○

Calculated through ratio of area of the district to the area of a circle with the same perimeter.

Key Issue 4: Where do States Face Threats? 1. Global Cooperation and Competition ●

The United Nations ○

Organized in 1945 with 51 original nations, grew to 193 in 2011. Increased rapidly during three main occasions: ■

1955: Sixteen countries joined in 1955 after being liberated from Germany in WWII.

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1960: Seventeen members were added, most were former colonies of Britain or France.

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1990-1993: 26 countries were added, primarily due to the breakup of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.

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Not the first attempt at effective peacekeeping, League of Nations was established after WWI but didn’t really work.

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Has intervened in conflicts between states, authorizing military/peace. ■

Chinese and Russian vetoes, however, have made it difficult for the UN to take action; for example, stopping Iran from nuclear weapon dev.

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The Cold War ○

During the Cold War era, the US and Soviet Union were the world’s powers.

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Both superpowers repeatedly demonstrated that they would use military force to prevent an ally from becoming too independent. ■

However, before the Cold War, there were no no two superpowers. ●

Balance of power is when there is roughly equal strength between opposing alliances.

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Example: The current “superpowers” of the world are considered to be China and the United States.

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Cuban Missile Crisis ●

USSR created missile launching sites in Cuba, which was close to US territory.

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Eventually, the missiles were dismantled after a UN conference.

2. Competition and Cooperation in Europe ●

Cold War-Era Military Alliances ○

North Atlantic Treaty Organization ■

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16 democratic states, made up of US/Canada and 14 European nations.

Warsaw Pact ■

A military agreement among Communist Eastern EU countries, disbanded in 1991 following the end of communism.

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Cold War-Era Economic Alliances ○

During the Cold War, the following alliances were created: ■

European Union ●

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Formed in 1958 with 6 members, healed scars from WWII.

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ●

Formed in 1949 with six members in 1960 (Mongolia, Cuba, and Vietnam) to promote trade and sharing of natural resources in communist Eastern Europe.

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The European Union in the Twenty-First Century ○

Main task of the EU is to promote development through economic and political cooperation.

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The European Parliament is elected by the people in each of the member states.

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Subsidies are provided to farmers/economically deprived locations.

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Most goods move across borders of member states w/o stopping.

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A citizen of one EU member is allowed to work in another.

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Banks/retailers can open branches in any member country with supervision.

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Common currency, the euro, was created for electronic transactions.

Alliances in Other Regions ○

Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe ■

57 members, includes US, Canada, Russia, all European states, and former Soviet Union states.

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Played an active role in ending conflict after the Cold War, specifically in the Balkans and Caucasus.

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Organization of American States ■

35 states in the Western Hemisphere, promote social, cultural, political, and economic links among member states.

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Cuba was a member, but suspended in 1962.

African Union ■

Established in 2022, AU encompasses 54 countries in Africa.

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Replaced Organization of African Unity, which promoted end to colonialism - the new org. Focuses on economic development.

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Commonwealth ■

Includes the UK and 52 other states that were once British colonies.

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Seek economic and cultural cooperation.

3. Terrorist Attacks Against the United States ●

Terrorism is the systematic use of violence by a group calculated to create an atmosphere of fear and alarm among a population, usually to coerce a government into actions it would not otherwise undertake. ○

Distinctive characteristics of terrorists include:

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Trying to achieve their objectives through organized acts that spread fear: bombing, axneiety, hijacking, assasination.

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Viewing violence as a means of bringing widespread publicity to goals.

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Believing in a cause so strongly that they do not hesitate to attack, despite knowing they might die in the act.

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Said to have originated during the French Revolution, when Robespierre thousands had his political opponents.

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Terrorism differs from assasination and other acts of violence in that attacks are aimed at ordinary people. ○

Terrorism has increase throughout the years, most terrorism in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria, and Syria.

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Terrorism Against Americans ○

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American suffered many terrorist attacks since 1988. Some include: ■

Bomb destroyed a Pan Am Flight over Scotland, killing all aboard.

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USS Cole bombed while in the port of Yemen, killed 17 US personnel.

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Mass shooting in Regional Center of San Bernardino, California.

September 11, 2001, Attacks ○

Most dramatic terrorist attacks against the US, twin towers of the World Trade Center in NYC were destroyed, as well as the Pentagon.

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2,977 civilian fatalities.

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2,605 on the ground at the World Trade Center.

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125 on the ground at the Pentagon

In addition to this, 19 terrorists died on the four hijacked airplanes. Responsible for this attack was Al-Qaeda.

4. Terrorist Organizations ●

Al-Qaeda ○

An arabic term meaning “the foundation” or “the base”.

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Founded around 1990 by Osama bin Laden to unite groups of fighters in Afghanistan.

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Osama’s dad founded a construction company and became a billionaire through connections to the Royal Family.

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Moved to Afghanistan to assist in the anti-Soviet war, which he deemed was a holy war. ■

Much of Al-Qaeda’s motives are backed through extremist religious views.

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Declared war on the US after they were allowed to station troops in Afghanistan.

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Besides 9/11, Al-Qaeda has also attacked Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Pakistan, S.A., Turkey, and the UK. ■

To stage these attacks, al-Qaeda has worked with local franchises concerned with country-specific issues. Controls most territory in Yemen.

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Islamic State/ISIS/ISIL ○

Islamic State originated in 199 and became an affiliate of al-Qaeda in 2004. ■

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Split in 2014 after lack of agreement.

Mainly Sunni Muslims who seek to impose strict religious laws throughout Southwest Asia. ■

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Human rights violations: beheadings, massacres, torture.

Success in utilization of Internet to communicate and recruit members, as well as spreading fear through beheading videos and destruction of historical sites.

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Boko Haram ○

Arabic for “Western education is forbidden,” founded in 2002 in northeastern Nigeria.

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Seeks to transform Nigeria into an Islamic state, greatly opposes adoption of Western cultural practices.

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Originally a peaceful religious complex and school runner, but violent uprisings have led them to use terrorist tactics.

5. State ...