A&P II Exam2 review PDF

Preview

Summary

test review...

Description

A&P II Review Sheet Exam #2 Chapter: 1. Be familiar with the velocity of blood flow and how it changes throughout circulation Velocity flow changes as blood travels through the systematic circulation. It is faster in the aorta, slowest in the capillaries, and then increases again in the veins. Speed is inversely related to total cross-sectional area. (Capillaries have the largest area so slowest flow. The slow flow gives time for diffusion of nutrients and gases, and bulk flow of fluids).

2. What is bulk flow? What pressures drive bulk flow? Bulk flow is the movement along pressure gradients. Hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure.

3. What is hydrostatic pressure (HP)? Hydrostatic Pressure is fluid pressing against the capillary wall. (HP) pushes fluid across the capillary wall.

What is osmotic pressure (OP)? Osmotic Pressure is the nondefinable solutes that cannot cross the capillary wall. (OP) pulls fluid across the capillary wall.

4. What is capillary hydrostatic pressure (HPc)? Is capillary blood pressure that forces fluid outside of the capillary wall.

What is interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure (HPif)? Is the pressure pushing fluid back into the vessels.

5. What is capillary colloid osmotic pressure (OPc)? Pulling pressure created by nondefinable plasma proteins pulling water back into the capillary.

What interstitial fluid osmotic pressure (OPif)? Pressure is insignificant because of low protein contents.

6. Describe how these pressure drive fluid flow at the capillary bed (at the arterial and

A&P II Review Sheet Exam #2 Chapter: venous ends). Blood hydrostatic pressure is greater at the arterial end of the capillary (35 mm Hg) and less ant the venous end (16 mm Hg).

7. What is edema? What are possible causes for edema? Edema is an abnormal increase in the amount of interstitial fluid. 

Increase in capillary hydrostatic pressure speeds up fluid loss from the blood. This could result incapable venous vales, localized blood vessel blockage, congestive heart failure.



Increased interstitial fluid osmotic pressure can result from inflammatory response. Inflammation increase capillary permeability, allowing plasma proteins to leak into the interstitial fluid.



Decreased capillary colloid osmotic pressure hinders fluid return to the blood.



Decreased drainage of the interstitial fluid through the lymphatic vessels that have been blocked.

1. What are the membranes that surround the heart and where are they located?

A&P II Review Sheet Exam #2 Chapter: The Pericardium is a doubled wall sac that surrounds the heart. It is made up of two layers, the fibrous pericardium, and the serous pericardium (parietal layer and visceral layer). 2. What are the unique features of cardiac muscle? Compare cardiac muscle to skeletal Muscle. Cardiac muscle

skeletal muscle

Structure

Striated, short, branched,

Striated, long,

Gap junction between cells Contracts as a unit

one or two nuclei per cell Yes Yes, gap junctions create

cylindrical, multinucleate No No, motor units must be

T tubules Sarcoplasmic reticulum Source of Ca2+ for contraction Ca2+ binds to troponin Pacemaker cells present Tetanus possible Supply of ATP

a function syncytium Fewer, wider Less elaborate.

stimulated individually Abundant Elaborate.

No terminal cisterns Sarcoplasmic reticulum and

Has terminal cisterns Sarcoplasmic reticulum only

extracellular fluid Yes Yes

Yes No

No

Yes

Aerobic only (more mitochondria)

Aerobic and anaerobic (fewer mitochondria)

3. Be able to describe the flow of blood through the heart from any point during the cycle. Oxygen poor blood is received on the right side of the heart by the superior and inferior vena cava and coronary sinus  right atrium  through the tricuspid valve  right ventricle  through the pulmonary semilunar valve  pulmonary trunk pulmonary arteries the lungs  pulmonary capillaries pulmonary veins  left atrium  through the bicuspid valve  left ventricle  through the aortic semilunar valve  aorta  body  systemic capillaries.

4. Know the difference between the pulmonary and systemic circuits. The pulmonary circuit pumps blood to and out of the lungs. Short low-pressure circulation. The systemic circuit pumps blood toward to body tissues. Long and high friction circulation.

A&P II Review Sheet Exam #2 Chapter: 5. Know all of the terms and alternate terms for parts of the heart (i.e. pulmonary and aortic valves are also referred to as semilunar valves). 6. Be able to discuss the cardiac cycle and which valves are open and which chambers are contracting, relaxing etc. I.

Ventricular filling (mid-late diastole) the AV vales are open, and the SL valves are closed. When blood returning to the heart presses against the AV valves forcing the AV valves to open filling the ventricles. Once AV valves begin to drift closed the atria(atriums) contract pushing the remainder blood to the ventricles.

II.

Ventricular systole (atria diastole) the AV vales are closed, and SL valves are open. Once the AV valves are closed the ventricles begin to contract and when the pressure exceeds blood forces the SL valves to open known as (isovolumetric contraction). Once the SL valves are opened the blood is pushed to the aorta and pulmonary trunk through (ventricular ejection).

III.

Early diastole, the blood in the aorta and pulmonary trunk backflow toward the ventricles and close the SL valves. When blood exceeds pressure Again the AV valves will open restating the Cardiac Cycle.

7. Be able to identify all parts of the electrical conduction system of the heart and know the order in which conduction flows through the heart. I. II.

SA node generates a impulse The impulse pauses at the AV node

III.

The AV bundle connects the atria to the ventricles.

IV.

The bundle branches conduct the impulse through the interventricular septum.

V.

Subendocardial conduction network depolarizes the contractile cells of both ventricles

8. Be able to differentiate between pacemaker cells and contractile cardiac cells and their associated action potentials. Pacemaker cells

Contractile cells

Slow depolarization, due to the open Na+

Depolarization, due to Na+ influx through fast

channels & the closed K+ channels.

voltage gated Na+ channels. Starts a positive

A&P II Review Sheet Exam #2 Chapter: feedback loop, inactivation of channels ends Depolarization, ATP begins when pacemaker

the phase. Plateau phase, due to Ca2+ influx through slow

potential reaches threshold. Depolarization,

Ca2+ channels keeps cell depolarized because

due to Ca+ influx (into the cell) through Ca+

most K+ channels are closed.

channels Repolarization, due to Ca+ channels

Repolarization, due to Ca2+ channels

inactivating and K+ channels opening. K+

inactivating and K+ channels opening. allows

efflux (out of the cell) bringing membrane

K+ efflux out of the cell bringing membrane

potential back to its resting condition

back its resting voltage.

9. Be able to correlate the parts of an ECG with the contraction of the atria and ventricles. The P wave: depolarization of the SA node and atria. QRS complex: ventricular depolarization and atria repolarization. T Wave: ventricular repolarization. P-R: beginning of atrial excitation to beginning of ventricular excitation. S-T: entire ventricular myocardium depolarized. Q-T: beginning of ventricular depolarization through ventricular repolarization. 10. Define the following terms End-Diastolic Volume, End-Systolic Volume, Stroke Volume, and Cardiac Output. End diastole volume (EDV); the amount of blood that collects in a ventricle during diastole End systole volume (ESV); the volume of blood remaining in a ventricle after it has contracted Stroke volume (SV); the volume of blood ejected by the ventricle with each contraction Cardiac output (CO); the amount of blood ejected from ventricle into the aorta each minute

11. What factors influence Stroke Volume (define and describe each factor) Preload: The degree to which cardiac muscle cells are stretched just before contract. Preload Increase  increases SV EDV VR Contractility: Contractile strength achieved at any given muscle length. Contractility Increase increases SV

A&P II Review Sheet Exam #2 Chapter: Afterload: Pressure that must overcome for ventricles to eject blood. Increase in afterload decrease SV. 12. What roles does the autonomic nervous system play in heart rate regulation? What area of the brain is the cardiac center located? o The sympathetic system release NE which bind the B1- adrenergic receptors of the heart, causing threshold to be reached faster. SA node fires more rapidly increasing heat rate. o The parasympathetic system, acetylcholine- hyperpolarizes the membrane by opening K+ channels. o Medulla oblongata 13. What hormone/hormones are involved in heart rate regulation? Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, Thyroxine, Acetylcholine. 14. What is venous return? How do preload and afterload affect venous return? Venous return (VR) is the flow of blood back to the heart.

15. The heart makes two sounds which can be heard with a stethoscope, what are these sounds and what is making them? The first sound is louder and longer then the second and occurs when the AV vales close. The pause between the two sounds indicates the hearts relaxation. The second sound is short and sharp and occurs when the SL vales snap shut. 16. What factors/stimuli increase or decrease heart rate? Stroke volume (SK), heart rate(HR), venous return (VR), contractility, sympathetic activity, parasympathetic activity, end diastolic volume (EDV), end systolic volume (ESV).

1. What are the major organs of the respiratory system? The Nose, Nasal cavity, Paranasal sinuses, and Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi and Branches, Lungs and Alveoli.

A&P II Review Sheet Exam #2 Chapter: 2. What is the difference between the lower respiratory tract and the upper respiratory tract? Upper respiratory: Nose, Nasal cavity, Paranasal sinuses, and Pharynx. Lower respiratory: Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi and Branches, Lungs and Alveoli. 3. Know the four processes of the respiratory system I. II.

Pulmonary ventilation (breathing). Movement of air into and out of the lungs. External respiration. Oxygen moves into blood from alveoli, CO2 moves out of blood into alveoli

III.

Transport. Oxygen moves from lungs to tissue cell of the body.

IV.

Internal respiration. Exchange of O2 and CO2 between systemic blood vessels and tissues.

4. What is the difference between the respiratory zone and the conducting zone (functionally and structurally) The conducting zone transports the air into and out of the lungs; consist of the right and left main bronchi, the lobar bronchi, the segmental bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles. The respiratory zone allows gas exchange between the lungs and the blood; consist of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar sac, alveolar duct, alveolar pores, alveolar macrophages. 5. What things make up the respiratory defense system? Mucus layer traps pathogens, Cilia, tiny muscular, hair-like projections on the cells that line the airways, Alveolar macrophages, a type of WBC on the surface of alveoli. 6. What is the function of mucus in the respiratory tract? The mucus traps smaller particles like pollen or smoke. Cilia line the mucous membrane and move the particles trapped in the mucus out of the nose.

7. What are the parts of the bronchial tree from the trachea to the alveolus? R&L bronchi Lobar bronchi segmental bronchi bronchioles terminal bronchiolesrespiratory bronchioles alveolar duct alveolar sac alvoli

A&P II Review Sheet Exam #2 Chapter: 8. What gas exchange happens in the alveoli? O2 passes the from the alveolus to the blood and CO2 leaves the blood and enter the gas-filled alveolus through simple diffusion. 9. Define: Ventilation, inspiration, expiration Ventilation; comprises two major steps: inspiration and expiration Inspiration is the process that causes air to enter the lungs Expiration is the process that causes air to leave the lungs 10. Define intrapulmonary, intrapleural and transpulmonary pressures and how the pressure changes during inhalation and expiration (figure 22.16) Intrapulmonary pressure decreases with inspiration and increases with expiration. Intrapleural pressure becomes more negative as the chest wall expands during inspiration, returns to initial value during expiration. Transpulmonary pressure is the difference between the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure. 11. What are the major events that take place during internal and external respiration and describe each. During internal respiration, O2 diffuses from blood to tissue cells, and CO2 diffuses from tissue cells to blood. External respiration, O2 diffuses from the lungs to the blood, and CO2 diffuses from the blood to the lungs. 12. Describe the sequence of events during inspiration and expiration. (review figure 22.15) During inspiration muscles contract and diaphragm decreases ribs rise thoracic volume increase lungs are starched, and intrapulmonary volume increases  intrapulmonary pressure dropsair flows into lungs down pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0. During Expiration inspiratory muscles relax, diaphragm rises, rib cage decreases thoracic cavity volume decreases intrapulmonary pressure rises air flows out lungs down pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0. 13. What is Boyle’s law? Gives relationship between the pressure and volume of gas.

A&P II Review Sheet Exam #2 Chapter: 14. What are the three physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation? Airway Resistance or friction (drag) encountered in the respiratory passageways. Alveolar Surface Tension Lung Compliance 15. What is Dalton’s law of partial pressures? States that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of pressures exerted independently by each gas. 16. What is Henry’s Law? States that when a gas is in contact with a liquid, the gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure.

17. Name and describe the three factors that influence external respiration. Define external Respiration Partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities. Thickness and surface area of the respiratory membrane. Ventilation-perfusion coupling that matches alveolar ventilation with pulmonary blood perfusion.

18. Define internal respiration. How does this differ from external respiration (consider differences in partial pressures and diffusion gradients)?...