BIO 1010 Final Study Guide PDF

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BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

What are the five unifying themes of biology? 1. Evolution: Evolution by natural selection is biology's core unifying theme and can be seen at every level in the hierarchy of life. 2. The relationship of structure and function: The structure of an object, such as a molecule or a body part, provides insight into its function. 3. Information flow: Within biological systems, information started in DNA is transmitted and expressed. 4. Energy flow and transformation: All biological systems depend on obtaining, converting, and releasing energy and matter. 5. Interconnections within ecosystems: All biological systems, from molecules to ecosystems, depend on interactions between components. Holism The study of a biological unit through the analysis as the sum of its parts (whole). Reductionism The study of a biological unit by breaking it down into its simplest parts. Robert Hooke Discovered the cell. Anton van Leeuwenhoek Discovered "protozoa" - single-celled organisms and called them "animalcules". Also improved the microscope and laid the foundation for microbiology. Matthias Jacob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann Was a botanist who contributed to the Cell Theory who theorized that plant cells were composed of "cells". Schwann later made the same observation in animals.

The Cell Theory 1. States that all living organisms are composed of cells and they may be unicellular or multicellular. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life. 3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells and are not derived from spontaneous generation.

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

4: Energy flow occurs within a cell. 5: Heredity information (DNA) is passed from cell to cell. 6: All cells have the basic chemical composition. Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cells 1. Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles, prokaryotes do not. 2. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or multicellular, Prokaryotes are single-celled. 3. Eukaryotes have a nucleus with DNA contained, prokaryotes only have a nucleiod region with DNA floating within the cytoplasm. 3. Eukaryotes have double-stranded, helical DNA, while prokaryotes have double-stranded, circular DNA. 4. Prokaryotes have distinct DNA regions sperate from the nucleoid region called plasmids. The Domains of Life Monera (bacteria), Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia What is a gene? A heritable unit of life that is transferred from parent to offspring. Genome A full set of chromosomes; the full set of heritable traits of an organism. Gene expression The process by which information from a gene in the synthesis of a functional gene product. Transcription (conversion of DNA into RNA) Post-transcriptional modifications → RNA transport → Translation (polypeptide/protein formation) → Protein folding. Positive feedback The enhancement or amplification of an effect by its own influence on the process that gives rise to it. Negative feedback The reduction or counteraction of an effect by its own influence on the process that gives rise to it.

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Major elements Includes calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, chloride and sulfur Trace elements Elements such as iron, iodine, fluoride, copper, zinc, chromium, selenium, manganese and molybdenum What is the protein crystallin in the eye used for? To help focus incoming light The 4 nucleotides in DNA A, T, C, G The 4 nucleotides on RNA A, U, C, G, where U substitutes T What does it mean to say that a gene is expressed? Information is used to make a polypeptide (protein) What is the correct order for the hierarchy of biological organization from least to the most complex? Molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem What is a localized group of organisms that belong to the same species called? A population Organisms interact with their environments, exchanging matter and energy. For example, plant chloroplasts convert the energy of sunlight into: The potential energy of chemical bonds Which of the following types of cells utilize deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as their genetic material but do not have their DNA encased within a nuclear envelope? Archaea Once labour begins in childbirth, contractions increase in intensity and frequency until delivery. The increasing labour contractions of childbirth are an example of which type of regulation? Positive feedback

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Prokaryotes are classified as belonging to two different domains. What are the domains? Bacteria and Archaea Which branch of biology is concerned with the naming and classifying of organisms? Taxonomy In what sense does the comment "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts" apply to biology? As we move up through biological levels, novel properties emerge that could not be identified at lower levels. The universal genetic code found in DNA is common to virtually all organisms on Earth, however diverse. What is the best explanation for this theory? All living things share a common genetic code in DNA because they share a common ancestry. Competition is central to the theory of natural selection. Why does competition occur? Organisms typically produce too many offspring, and resources are limited. Scientific experiments must occur under carefully controlled conditions found in a laboratory. True or False? False In an experiment, investigators try to control all of the variables except one—the one that tests the hypothesis. Which of the following reasons is the primary rationale for controlling variables in an experiment? To eliminate alternative explanations for the results of an experiment Could the hypothesis "The first living cell on Earth came from outer space" be supported by a scientific experiment? No Can a hypothesis can be supported or rejected through experimentation.? Yes

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Which variable did Pasteur change in his experiment to test the hypothesis of spontaneous generation? The shape of the flask In Pasteur's experiment to test the hypothesis of spontaneous generation, why did he boil the broth in both flasks? To kill any existing organisms in the broth What results from the Zonosemata experiment support the sub-hypothesis that wing waving alone reduces predation by jumping spiders? Zonosemata flies with house fly wings are attacked less frequently. Suppose that Zonosemata flies whose own wings had been clipped and reattached were attacked more frequently than untreated Zonosemata flies. How would this result affect the reliability of the other experimental results? All results for the experimental groups involving wing surgery would be invalid. Natural experiment An empirical study in which individuals (or clusters of individuals) exposed to the experimental and control conditions are determined by nature or by other factors outside the control of the investigators Manipulative experiment Alter levels of a predictor variable (or factor), and then measures how one or more variables respond to these alterations Who disproved spontaneous generation? Louis Pasteur; swan-neck flask Are water molecules polar or nonpolar? Polar How do water molecules stick together? Hydrogen bonds A water molecule has what kind of bonds? Polar covalent bonds.

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Each water molecule is joined to _____ other water molecules by ____ bonds. four ... hydrogen The unequal sharing of electrons within a water molecule makes the water molecule Polar The tendency of an atom to pull electrons toward itself is referred to as its Electronegativity What type of bond is found between oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a water molecule? Polar covalent Why can water striders glide on the surface of water? Surface tension Sulphur is in the same column of the periodic table as oxygen, but has electronegativity similar to carbon. Compared to water molecules, molecules of H2S: Will not form hydrogen bonds with each other How does water get from the roots of a tree to its leafs? As water evaporates from a tree, a phenomenon called cohesion pulls water molecules up the tree by their hydrogen bonds. What process exerts the pull on water molecules that is relayed from leaf to root via cohesion? Evaporation Cohesion Refers to the sticking together of alike molecules Adhesion The tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another Surface tension The tension of the surface film of a liquid caused by the attraction of the particles in the surface layer by the bulk of the liquid, which tends to minimize surface area.

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Specific heat The heat required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a given substance by a given amount (usually one degree). What is the charge on a hydronium ion? 1+ What is the charge on a hydroxide ion? 1About _____ molecules in a glass of water are dissociated. 1 in 500,000,000 Acid Any substance that INCREASES the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. Base Any substance that DECREASES the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. In a neutral solution the concentration of Hydrogen ions is equal to the concentration of hydroxide ions What are the 2 equations used to calculate pH? pH=−log[H3O+] and [H3O+]=10^−pH Monomer "One part" Polymer "Many parts" What are proteins composed of? Amino acids

What are carbohydrates composed of? Simple sugars

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

What are nucleic acids composed of? Nucleotides Condensation reaction or Hydrolysis reaction A reaction in which two molecules combine to form a larger molecule, producing a small molecule such as H2O as a byproduct. Isomers Compounds that have the same molecular formula but have different chemical structures. Structural Isomers Differ in the covalent partnerships between their atoms. Geometric Isomers Vary an arrangement of atoms around a double bond. Enantiomers (Stereoisomers) Mirrors of each other (like left and right hands).

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

L-dopa is used to treat Parkinson's disease What kind of effect does R-dopa have on Parkinson's disease? None. Enantiomers are molecules that Are mirror images of one another. Geometric isomers are molecules that Differ in the arrangement of their atoms about a double bond Fimbriae Surface appendages that allow a bacterium to stick to a surface. Acetyl CoA Formation Pyruvate enters mitochondria → one carbon is removed that forms CO2 as a byproduct → Electrons are stripped forming NADH → CoEnzyme A attaches to the two carbon fragment forming Acetyl CoA. Plasma membrane Acts as a selective barrier Cell wall Rigid structure outside the plasma membrane that surrounds, supports, and protects the cell. Nucleoid Region Houses the prokaryotic cell's DNA Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis; analogous to a ticker tape Capsule Sticky, jelly-like protective layer outside the cell wall. Flagellum Structure that propels prokaryotic cells.

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Dalton A measure of mass for atoms and subatomic particles; the same as the atomic mass unit, or amu;(g/mole) Which molecules do not normally cross the nuclear membrane? DNA True or false? The nuclear envelope is continuous with the Golgi apparatus. False True or false? Large proteins containing a nuclear localization signal (NLS) bind to the nuclear pore and enter the nucleus without any expenditure of energy. False. Process requires energy A small protein (molecular weight = 25,000 daltons) is injected into a cell and observed in the nucleus a short time later. What type of transport has taken place? Passive transport In experiments to test whether a protein can enter the nucleus, why would proteins be labeled with fluorescent molecules? To make the proteins easy to see Nucleoplasmin is a nuclear protein. This protein was divided into two segments and linked to the same large cytoplasmic protein, generating two fusion proteins. After injecting these fusion proteins into a cell, one of the proteins was found in the nucleus and the other in the cytoplasm. Which of the following conclusions can be drawn from these results? Only one of the two fusion proteins possesses a nuclear localization signal. Rough ER Covered with ribosomes; site of protein synthesis Smooth ER Lacks ribosomes; site of lipid, steroid, and carbohydrate synthesis; storage of calcium ions; detoxification of medications and poisons Golgi apparatus Protein modification and sorting; cisternal maturation

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Lysosomes Autophagy; macromolecule digestion Which of the following proteins are synthesized by bound ribosomes? Lysosomal enzyme, insulin, and ER protein Path secretory proteins follow from synthesis to secretion Endoplasmic reticulum → cis Golgi cisternae → medial Golgi cisternae → trans Golgi cisternae → plasma membrane Plant cell wall Strong, protective structure made from cellulose fibrils Central vacuole Regulates cytoplasm composition, creates internal pressure, and stores cell compounds Chloroplast Makes sugar by converting light energy into chemical energy; have membranous sacs called thylakoids that are surrounded by a fluid called stroma; contain a green pigment called chlorophyll Mitochondrion Produces chemical energy (ATP) that can power the cell Extracellular matrix Sticky coat that holds the cells together Cytoskeleton The structural framework of the cell; contains microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments which can also serve as transport Cristae Each of the partial partitions in a mitochondrion formed by infolding of the inner membrane; increases surface area

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Functional Groups

Microfilaments A small rod like structure, about 4-7 nanometers in diameter, present in numbers in the cytoplasm of many eukaryotic cells. Intermediate Filaments Cytoskeletal components found in the cells of vertebrate animal species, and perhaps also in other animals, fungi, plants, and unicellular organisms. They are composed of a family of related proteins sharing common structural and sequence features.

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Microtubules A microscopic tubular structure present in numbers in the cytoplasm of cells, sometimes aggregating to form more complex structures; the only cytoskeletal fibers not associated with intracellular movement or while cell locomotion. Centrosomes An organelle near the nucleus of a cell that contains the centrioles (in animal cells) and from which the spindle fibers develop in cell division. Exergonic (downhill) reaction A chemical reaction that releases energy; occur spontaneously; releases heat into the environment Endergonic (uphill) reaction A chemical reaction that absorbs energy from its surroundings Energy coupling Obtaining chemical energy from an exergonic reaction and then using the energy to drive an endergonic reaction Energy of Activation The energy required to start a chemical reaction Enzyme Serves as a biological catalyst by increasing the rate of reaction without changing the shape of the molecule. It does this by lowering the energy of activation required to start a reaction; is selective In general, enzymes are what kinds of molecules? Proteins Substrate The name given to the reactants in an enzymatically catalyzed reaction Factors that affect the rate of an enzymatically catalyzed reaction Temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the presence of any inhibitors or activators.

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Competitive inhibitor Has a structure that is so similar to the substrate that it can bond to the enzyme just like the substrate. Noncompetitive inhibitor Binds to a site on the enzyme that is not the active site; distorts the shape of the enzyme. Irreversible inhibitor Forms a covalent bond with an amino acid side group within the active site, which prevents the substrate from entering the active site or prevents catalytic activity. Active site The specific region of an enzyme where the substrate binds and catalysis takes place or where chemical reaction occurs. Denature When a protein loses its functional structure; Characteristic of proteins; a change in shape that stops the protein from functioning. Cofactor A non-protein chemical compound or metallic ion that is required for a protein's biological activity to happen; considered "helper molecules" that assist in biochemical transformations. Glycolysis 1st step in cellular respiration; takes place outside the mitochondria; A hydrolysis reaction splits the glucose molecule in half using energy from ADP → NAD+ picks up electrons and hydrogen atoms from the carbon molecule and is turned into NADH → produces 2 net ATP → produces pyruvic acid that moves into the mitochondria; Takes place in the Cytosol Net input: Glucose, ADP, NAD+ Net output: Pyruvate, ATP, NADH

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Acetyl CoA formation 2nd step in cellular respiration; One carbon is removed releasing CO2 → Electrons are stripped forming NADH → Coenzyme A attaches Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix Net input: NAD+, pyruvate, coenzyme A Net output: CO2, NADH, acetyl CoA Citric Acid Cycle 3rd step in cellular respiration; Coenzyme A removed with ADP → 2 carbon molecule is attached to a 4 carbon molecule that serves as a starting point → The new 6 carbon chain is partially broken down releasing CO2 → Electrons are captured by electron carriers, releasing more CO2 → 2 ATP are produced for each molecule of glucose Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix Net input: NAD+, acetyl CoA, ADP Net output: CO2, ATP, NADH, coenzyme A Oxidative Phosphorylation 4th and final step in cellular respiration; Electron carriers, such as NADH, deliver their electrons to an electron transport train which consists of a series of electron carriers which are proteins that exist in large complexes → Oxygen we breath pulls electrons from the electron transport chain and produces water as a byproduct → Energy released by electrons is used to pump hydrogen ions across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion creating an area of high hydrogen ion concentration → hydrogen ions flow back through the membrane through a generator which produces ATP. Takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane Net input: NADH, O2, ADP Net output: NAD+, ATP, H2O Redox Reaction The movement of electrons from one molecule to another; another name for an oxidation-reduction reaction

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

The Four Stages of Cellular Respiration 1. Glycolysis 2. Acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) formation 3. Citric Acid Cycle 4. Oxidative Phosphorylation Substrate-level phosphorylation When an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule. Anaerobic Without oxygen Aerobic Requires oxygen NAD+ Electron carrier involved in glycolysis NADH The reduced form of NAD+; an electron-carrying molecule that functions in cellular respiration FAD+ Molecule and electron carrier similar to NAD+. It is ready to carry high energy electrons. FADH2 The compound FAD+ is converted to, similar to NADH NADPH Electron carrier that provides high-energy electrons for photosynthesis Photosystem II The photosystem in the thylakoid membrane that accepts electrons from water; takes place first; P680 Photosystem I The photosystem that makes NADPH, takes place second; P700

BIO1010 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Linear Electron Flow The flow of electrons through photosystems to produce ATP and NADPH. Chlorophyll Green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis Thylakoid A membranous sac found within chloroplasts that contains the components for photosynthesis Stroma In plants, the solution that surrounds the thylakoids in a chloroplast. P680 The reaction center chlorophyll in photosystem II. P700 The reaction center chlorophyll in photosystem I. Chemiosmosis A process for making ATP using the energy stored in an electrochemical gradient of hydrogen ions. Osmosis Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane Isotonic Describes a solution whose solute concentration is equal to the solute concentration inside a cell Hypertonic Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution. Hypoton...