Breach of Duty and Causation Notes PDF

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BREACH OF DUTY Blyth: Negligence is the omission to do something which a reasonable man would do, or doing something which a reasonable man would not do. Occurs when the defendant does something below the standard of care required of him and resulted in damage to the victim. Can be determined using ...

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BREACH OFDUTY - Bl yt h:Negl i ge ncei st heomi ss i ont odosome t hi ngwhi c har easonabl emanwoul ddo,ordoi ng some t hi ngwhi c har easonabl emanwoul dnotdo. - Occur swhent hede f endantdoessome t hi ngbe l ow t hes t andar dofcar er equi r edofhi m and r esul t e di ndamaget ot hevi ct i m. - Canbede t er mi nedusi ngt her easonabl emant e s t . - Thes t andar dofcar ei st hebenchmar k. Bl yt hvBi r mi ngham Wat e r wor ksCo - Thedef endanti scompar edt oar easonabl eman–woul dar easonabl emanhaveact e dast he de f endanthasdonei ft her easonabl emanwasf acedwi t ht hesameci r cums t ancesast he de f endant ? - E. g.I ft hede f endanti sadr i v er ,heshoul dbec ompar edwi t hot herdr i v er . Defini t i onoft heReasonabl eMan - Ar easonabl eper soni sanor di nar y ,wi seper sonwhousesar easonabl ecar et oavoi di nj ur i ng ot her s. - Gr eerLJi nHal lvBr ookl andsAut oRaci ngCl ub–t hemanont heCl apham omni bus - Lor dSt e yni nMcFar l enevTays i deHeal t hBoar d–commut er sont heLondonUnder gr ound - Nor c hayaTal i bi nLaw ofTor t si nMal ay si a–t hemanwhodr i v esaPr ot onSagaandwhospend hi swe ekendst r ol l i ngi nashoppi ngmal lwi t hhi sf ami l y . HasDe f endantComeUpToTheSt andar d? 1.St at eofKnowl edge RoevMi ni s t erofHeal t h - Fac t s–t hepl ai nt i ffwaspar al y se daf t e ranoper at i onbe causet heane st he t i csol ut i onwas ac ci dent l ymi xedwi t hphenolwhi c hi sasol ut i ont hatwaspl acedar oundt heanest he t i c c ont ai ner .Theevi denceshowedt her ewasat i nycr ac kappe ar edont hec ont ai ner . - Hel d–Thecr ac kcoul dnothav ebeendet e ct e daccor di ngt ot hest at eofknowl edgeatt hatt i me. Thedoc t orkne w oft hec onsequenc esoft hephenoli nj ec t i onandhehade xami nedt he anes t he t i csol ut i onbe f or egi vi ngt hei nj ec t i on.Thedoc t orwasnotawar eoft hepossi bi l i t yof t hecr ac kont hecont ai ner .I fhedi d,hewoul dhav eaddedanot herc hemi calt odet e ctt he phenoli nt heane st het i csol ut i on.Thecour the l dt hatt hedoc t orwasnotne gl i genti nnot t e s t i ngt hephenolast hepossi bi l i t yoft hecr ackshappe nsonsuchsi t uat i onwasonl y di sc over edi n1952wher east hei nci denthappenedi n1947.Thes t andar dofcar emustbe basedont hecur r entmedi calknowl e dgeatt het i meoft hebr each. N vUK Medi calRe sear c hCounci l - Ther ewasamedi calexpe r i menti n1959ont hechi l dr ent odi scov ert hegr owt hr at e .I n1976, t heyf oundoutt hatoneoft heme t hodsc oul dcausebr ai ndi seaseandsev er alc hi l dr endi ed. Butt heydi dnots t opt hee xper i ment .Ther ewasabr eac hon1976,not1959becauseon1959, t heydi dnotknow aboutt her i s k. 2.Magni t udeoft heRi sk I . Chancesofr i skoccur r i ng Bol t onvSt one

- I n1947,awomanwass t andi ngout si det hehouseandwashi tbyacr i cketbal lf r om acr i c ke t gr oundnearherhouse .Thecr i cketgr oundwassur r oundedbyasevenf ootwal landwasbui l t i n1864be f or et her esi dent i alar eawasbui l t . - Hel d–Thecour the l dt hatt hecr i cketc l ubwashe l dnotl i abl ebecaus esuc hi nci denti sr ar e l y occur r ed.Al t hought her i s ki sf or eseeabl ebuti twoul dbei nconveni enti fpr ecaut i onar y measur esar et obet akenf orf or eseeabl er i s ks .I ti sunpr act i calt oi ncr easet hehei ghtoft he f encebecausei twoul dbecos t l yandt i meconsumi ng. I I . Ser i ousnessoft hei nj ur y/damage Par i svSt epneyBor oughCounc i l - Thepl ai nt i ffwhowasbl i ndi nonee yewor kedf ort hede f endantandt hewor kscont ai nr i s kof i nj ur yt ot hee yes.Api ec eofmet alhi thi sgoode yewhenhewaswor ki ngandhewasbl i nd t her eaf t e r .Hec l ai medt hathewasnotpr ovi dedwi t hgoggl ewhenhewor kedt her e .The de f endantar guedt hati twasacommonpr ac t i ce,ot hercompanyal sodi dnotpr ovi degoggl e s. - Hel d–Theempl oyerhadadut yt ot aker easonabl ecar et oensur et hesaf e t yoft hewor ki ng envi r onmentofhi sempl oy ee s.I ft hedef endantknew oroughtt oknow t hatt her i s kofi nj ur yt o t hepl ai nt i ffi shi ghert hanusualandt hese r i ousnessoft hei nj ur ywoul dbegr eat er ,t henhe mus tt akeext r apr ecaut i onst oavoi dpot ent i ali nj ur y .Heshoul dconsi dert hepr obabi l i t yof i nj ur i esoccur r i ngt ohi sempl oy ee sandheshoul dpr ovi degoggl et ohi sempl oy ees. 3.Ut i l i t yofConduct - I ft her ewasanemer gencysi t uat i onandt hede f endant ’ sac t i onl at e rt ur nedoutt obet hewr ong c our seofact i onaswel lasane gl i g entac t ,t hecour twi l lc onsi dert heemer gencysi t uat i oni n or de rt ode t er mi newhet hert hedef e ndant ’ scour seofact i onwasr easonabl ei nt he ci r c ums t ance s. Wat tvHer t f or dshi r eCount yCounci l - Thefir es t at i onr ecei v edanemer gencycal lf orawomanwhowast r appedunderaheavy v e hi c l e.Thefir eengi newhi chusual l ycar r i edt hej ac kwasnotav ai l abl e.Henc e,t hej ac kwas br oughtont oanor malfir ee ngi ne.Ont hewayt ot heemer gencyscene,t hej acksl i ppe dand i nj ur edt hepl ai nt i ff. - Hel d–Thedef e ndantwashe l dnotl i abl east her i ski st akent osaveanot herl i f e. 4.CommonPr act i ce - I ft hedef endantdoe sasar easonabl emanwoul ddoi nt hesamesi t uat i on,t hent hede f endant wi l lhaveact e dr easonabl y . - I ft hedef endantf ol l owst hec ommonpr act i c e,t her e f or ehei snotnegl i g ent . - Howev er ,I ft hecommonpr ac t i cei swr ongandcoul dcaus ei nj ur y ,t hede f endantwoul dbe f oundl i abl e . Par i svSt epneyBor oughCounc i l - Ev eni fi twasacommonpr ac t i ce( notpr ovi di nggoggl et ot hee mpl oyees) ,i tdoesnotmean t her ei snobr eachofdut y . Gener alCl eani ngCont r ac t or svChr i s t mas - Thepl ai nt i ffwi ndow cl e anerwascl eani ngawi ndow t went ysevenf ee tabov et hegr ound.The pl ai nt i fff e l lf r om t hel edgeont hewi ndow whi chwassi xandaquar t eri nche si nwi dt hand i nj ur edhi mse l f . - Hel d–Ev ent houghst andi ngont hewi ndow l edgewasacommonpr ac t i cef orwi ndow cl e aner s, t hi swasadanger ouspr ac t i ce.Thedef endantast hee mpl oyerwasl i abl ef ornotpr ovi di nga saf e rsy st e m ofwor k. Ai kBeeSawmi l lvMunKum Chow

- Thepl ai nt i ffdi dnotuseacr ossbart ol i f tpl anksont oal or r yandcausedt hepl ankst of e l lont o hi m.Thecommonpr ac t i cei susi ngt hecr ossbart ol i f tt hepl anks. - Hel d–Si ncet hepl ai nt i ffwasnev ert aughthow t ouset hecr ossbar ,t hedef endantwasl ai bl e .

5.Cos tandPr act i cabi l i t y - Ther i skmustbemeasur edagai ns tt hepr ecaut i ont hatneedst obet aken,andal l pr ecaut i onar ymeasur esunder t ake nbyt hede f endantwi l lbet akeni nt oac counti n de t e r mi ni ngt her easonabl enessoft hede f endant ’ sact i ons. Bol t onvSt one - I twoul dbec os t l yt oi ncr easet hehei ghtoft hef e ncesur r oundi ngt hecr i c ke tgr ound. - I twoul dbec os t l yt omov et hecr i c ke tgr oundt oanot herpl ace . Lat i mervAEC - Thepl ai nt i ff’ sf act or ywasfloodedduet ot heheavyr ai n.Themi xt ur eofwat e randoi lcause d par toft hefloort obev er ysl i pper yandsawdus twaspl acedov ert hesl i pper ypar t .Notal lt he sl i pper ypar twasf ul l yc over edandt hepl ai nt i ffsl i ppedandf e l l .Thepl ai nt i ffc l ai medt hatt he de f endantshoul dshutdownt hef ac t or y . - Hel d–Ther i skofi nj ur ywasi nsuffici entt ocl oset hef ac t or y .I ft her i s ki sl ow andt her ei sno e xt r acostr equi r edort hecostt or educ et her i s ki sl ow,t hedef e ndantwi l lbel i abl ef ornot t aki ngpr ecaut i onst or educ et her i sk.Buti fc l osi ngdownt hef act or ywi l lbr i nggr eat e rl osst o t hef act or y ,t hede f e ndantwoul dnotbel i abl ei fhedi dnott akepr ecaut i onst or educet her i s k. Hamz ah& Or svWanHanafibi nWanAl i - Thepl ai nt i ffwhowasapasse ngeronat r ai nhoppedoffandi nj ur edhi msel fbe f or et het r ai n f ul l ys t opped. - Hel d–Thedef e ndanti snotl i abl east heyal r eadyt akensuffici e ntpr ecaut i ons .Ther ewer e wr i t t e nnot i c esandor alwar ni ngst hatt hepassenger sshoul dnotst andneart het r ai ndoor sor t oj umpofft het r ai nbe f or ei tf ul l yst ops .Thet r ai nser vi c ei sac heapandeffici entf or m of t r anspor t at i on.I ft hede f endant shav et ot akee xt r apr ecaut i onar y ,i twoul dmeanpl aci ngguar d atev er ydoori nt het r ai n.I twoul dbeext r emeandc os t l y .

Novi c es( Exper ti naPar t i c ul arFi e l d) Ne t t l eshi pvWes t on - Thepl ai nt i ffwast eachi nghi sf r i end,t hede f endantt odr i ve .Thede f e ndantne gl i g ent l yhi ta l amppos t .Thepl ai nt i ffsuffer edabr okenkneecap. - Hel d–Thedef e ndantwasf oundl i abl e.Al e ar ner dr i v ermustdr i v ei namannerasas ki l l edand e xper i enceddr i v er .

AngTi ongSengvGohHuanChi r - Thepl ai nt i ffi nj ur edhi shandandwasbr oughtt oasi nse h( D3) .Thesi nsehbandagedhi shand t oget herwi t h3s t i cksofbamboo.On2nd day ,t heheexper i enc edsomepai nandwentt oseet he si nse h.Thesi nse hgav emedi ci neandt ol dhi mt hepai nwoul dgetwor seont he3rd day .Hewent bac kt oseet hesi ns ehandt hesi nse hbr oughthi mt ot hehos pi t al .HehadGangr eneandhi s handhadt obeamput at e d. - Hel d–Thesi nsehcannotbec ompar edt oar eas onabl emanashehasski l l swhi char easonabl e mandi dnothav e.Thes t andar dofcar er equi r edofhi mi snotsameasadoct orashemer e l ya pr ac t i t i oner .Thesi nsehwashel dl i abl eashewascar e l e ssi nhi st r eat mentt ot hepl ai nt i ff.

Wi l shervEs se xAr eaHeal t hAut hor i t y - Apr emat ur ebabywasgi v ene xcessoxygenduet oaner r ori nmoni t or i ngt heoxygensuppl y .A j uni ordoct ori nser t edt hecat he t e ri nt oavei ni nst e adoft hear t er yandcausedani naccur at e r eadi ngoft heoxygenl e ve l .Thedoc t orgavemor eoxygent ot hebabyandt hebabybecome bl i nd. - Hel d–Thes t andar dofcar eshoul dber e l at edt ot hepos toft hede f endantandnothi s i ndi vi duall ev e lofexpe r i e nc eorcompe t e ncy .I nt hi scase ,i twasaper sonwhofil l edt hepos tof as ki l l edandc ompe t entdoc t or .

Pr of e ssi onalSt andar d Aper sonwhospeci al i z e si npar t i cul ars ki l l si spr of essi onal swhoar eboundt oexer ci set hecar e ands ki l lofor di nar ycompet e ntpr act i t i oner si nt hei rr es pec t i v epr of essi ons. Thes t andar dofcar er equi r edoft hesepr of e ss i onal si st hatofar easonabl epr of e ss i onal . Bol am vFr i er nHos pi t alManagementCommi t t ee( 1975) Thepl ai nt i ffsuffe r si nj ur i e sdur i ngane l ec t r oc onvul si v et r eat ment( ECT) .Thepl ai nt i ffal l e ge d negl i genc eon3gr ounds: i . Thede f endantdi dnotwar nt hepl ai nt i ffoft her i s ksi nv ol v edi nanECT i i .Thede f endantdi dnotgi v et hepl ai nt i ffanyr e l axantbef or et heshoc kswer egi vent ohi m i i i .Thede f e ndantdi dnothol dt hepl ai nt i ff’ sbodywhi l s tt het r eat mentwasbei ngadmi ni s t e r ed. He l d–Thede f endantwasf oundnotl i abl eashehadconf or medt ot hes t andar dofar easonabl e doct or sandnothol di ngdownt hepl ai nt i ff’ sbodywasnotani mpr opercour seofac t i on. Aper sonneednotpossesst hehi ghes texpe r ts ki l l s.I ti ssuffici enti fheexer ci sest heor di nar y s ki l lofanor di nar yc ompe t entmane xer ci s i ngt hatpar t i c ul ars ki l l . Thedoc t orneedst obecompar edt oar easonabl yc ompe t entdoc t ori nt hatpar t i cul arfiel d. Si dawayvBe t hl e m RoyalHos pi t alGov er ner s( 1985) - Thepl ai nt i ffunder wentanoper at i ononherv er t e br ae.Theoper at i oncar r i edt her i s kof damaget ohers pi nalcor d.Ther i s ki sv er ysmal lbutcoul dbes ev er ei nnat ur ei fi ti s mat e r i al i z ed.Thesur geondi dnots pec i fical l yi nf or m heroft hi sr i s k.Thepl ai nt i ff’ ss pi nalcor d wasdamage dwi t houtanyne gl i g enceont hede f endant ’ ssur geonpar t .Thepl ai nt i ffc l ai medon t hebasi st hatshewasnotgi v enanywar ni ngaboutt her i s koft heoper at i on. - Hel d–Thedef e ndanti sf oundnotl i abl ef ornoti nf or mi ngt hepl ai nt i ffaboutt her i s kofi nj ur y t oherspi nalc or dast hesur geonhadac t e di naccor dancewi t ht hemedi calpr ac t i c e .Thec our t appl i e dt heBol am Test ,t hehos pi t alandt hesur geonwasnotl i abl east hesur geonhad r eac hedt her equi r eds t andar dofcar e,ev ent houghhedi dnoti nf or mt hepl ai nt i ffoft her i s ks i nvol v ed. Bol i t hovCi t yandHac kneyHeal t hAut hor i t y( 1997) - Thecour the l dt hati nmat t e r sofadvi c e,what ev ert headvi cei s,i tmus tbel ogi cal .I fi ti s r easonabl eandl ogi cal ,i ti snotabr eac h.I fi ti snotl ogi calorr easonabl e ,t hedoct orwi l lbe he l dl i abl e . Roger svWhi t aker( 1992) - Thepl ai nt i ffal mostt ot al l ybl i ndi nherl e f te yeasar esul tofac ondi t i onknownassympat he t i c opht hal mi a,af t erasur ger yconduc t edonherr i ghteye .Thesur ger ywasnotc onduc t ed negl i gent l yal t hought hesi ghtofherr i ghteyedi dnoti mpr ov e.Thepl ai nt i ffc l ai medt hatt he doct ordi dnoti nf or m heraboutt her i s koft hesur ger y( sympat he t i copht hal mi a) - Hel d–Thedoc t ori sf oundl i abl e .Hehasadut yt oi nf or mt hepat i entaboutt her i s koft he t r eat ment .Themat t e rofgi vi ngadvi sesandi nf or mat i oni st hecommuni cat i ons ki l l ,nota medi cals ki l l .

FooFi oNavDrSooFookMun& Anor( 2007) - Thepl ai nt i ffwasi nj ur edi nacaracci dent .Shedi sl ocat e dhercer vi calv er t e br ae.Af t ert hefir st sur ger y ,t hepl ai nt i ffwaspar al yz edandwhenmedi cat i onf ai l edt oi mpr ovehercondi t i on,t he de f endantper f or medt hesecondsur ger y .Herpar al ysi sbecameper manentaf t e r war ds.She c l ai medt hatt hepar al y si swasbecauseoft hefir stsur ge r y .Sheal soc l ai medt hatt hede f endant f ai l edt oe xpl ai nt her i s kofpar al ysi sandi ns t eadi nf or medhert hati twasami norsur ger y .I f shehadbeenwar nedoft her i s kofpar al ysi s ,shewoul dnothav eagr eedt opr oc eedwi t ht he fir s tsur ger y . - Hel d–Thet e stt ode t e r mi net hest andar dofcar eofadoc t or i nr e l at i ont odi sc l osur eof i nf or mat i onandr i s ki snotBol am Test .Thedoct orhasadut yt owar nament al l yc ompe t e nt pat i entoft her i s koft hepr oc edur esot hatt hepat i entcandeci dewhe t hert opr oceedordec l i ne t hepr oc edur e.

Zul hasni marbtHassanBasr i& AnorvDrKuppuVe l emaniP& Or s( 2017) - Thedoc t orhasadut yt oi nf or mt hepat i e ntoft her i s ksoft het r eat ment s. - I nmat t e r sofdi agnosi sandt r eat ment ,t hecour twi l lappl yt heBol am Testasmodi fiedby Bol i t ho’ scase . - I nmat t e r sofadvi ces ,t hecour twi l lappl yt heFooFi oNa’ scase .

DrHar iKr i shnan& AnorvMegatNoorI shakbi nMegatI br ahi m & Anor( 2017)

CAUSATI ON Causat i oni nFac t -

Causat i onl i nkst hebr eachandt hedamage . Bur denofpr oofi sont hepl ai nt i ff. Causat i on:ast her esul tofde f e ndant ’ sbr eac h,t hepl ai nt i ffi si nj ur ed. Theques t i ont hatar i sesi swhe t hert hede f endant ’ sc onducthasi nf ac tcause dt hedamage suffer edbyt hepl ai nt i ff. - Thepl ai nt i ff’ sl ossmaybeduet oonecauseoft her emaybemul t i pl ede f endant s.

Si ngl eCause - But ForTe st–woul dt hepl ai nt i ffhavesuffer edi nj ur i esbutf ort hede f e ndant ’ sbr eac hof dut y? Bar ne t tvChel se a& Kensi ngt onHos pi t alManagementCommi t t ee - Thepl ai nt i ff’ shusbandandhi sf r i endswentt ot hehospi t alwhent heyst ar t edv omi t edaf t e r dr i nki ngt het ea.Thedoct ori nst r uc t e dt henur set ot el lt hem t ogohomeandcal lt hei rown doct or s.Ont heaf t e r noon,t hepl ai nt i ff’ shusbanddi edduet oar seni cpoi soni ng.Thepl ai nt i ff suedt hede f endantf orf ai l ur et ot r eathi shusband. - Hel d–Thedoc t orhadbr eac hedhi sdut yofcar ef ornott r eat i ngt hepat i ent .Howev er ,t he br eac hdi dnotcauset heP’ shusband’ sdeat h.Hewoul ds t i l lhav edi e dev eni ft hedoc t orhad t r eat e dhi m.Thede f e ndantwashe l dnotl i abl e. - Thepr i nci pl ewasdi s t i ngui shedi nWi l s hervEss ex.Thec l ai manthadt opr ov et hatt he de f endant sbr eac hwasamat e r i alcauseoft hei nj ur y .

Concur r ent /Mul t i pl eCauses - Sev er albr eachhappenedatt hesamet i me. Benni ngt onCas t i ngsLt dvWar dl aw - Thepl ai nt i ffc ont r ac t edpneumoconi osi sduet oi nhal i ngsi l i cadustathi spl aceofwor k. Thedus tcamef r om apneumat i cmachi newhi c hdi dnotgi v er i set oanybr eac hont hepar t oft hede f endant .Someofdus tal socamef r om t hegr i ndi ngmac hi nef orwhi cht he de f endantwasatf aul tf ornotensur i ngt hatt hedus t absor bermec hani sm wasf unc t i oni ng pr oper l y . - Hel d–Thedef e ndanti sl i abl east hedustf r om t hegr i ndi ngmac hi necons t i t ut e doneoft he causesoft hedi s ease .Thepl ai nt i ffwasnotr equi r edt opr ov et hatt hedus twast hemai n causeofhi si l l ness. - Thepr i nci pl et hatar osef r om t hi scasei st hatapl ai nt i ffnee dnotpr ovet hatt he de f endant ’ sbr eachofdut yi st hemai ncauseoft hedamageasl ongast hebr eachi san i mpor t antcauseofdamage .

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Wi l shervEs se xAr eaHeal t hAut hor i t y Ababywasbor npr emat ur eandt hebaby’ sheal t hi satr i s k.Thebaby’ sl ungwasnot dev el opedpr oper l y .Thebabywast r eat e df or5di ffer entt r eat ment sandbecamebl i nd.The baby’bl i ndnessc oul dhavebeencause dei t herbynegl i ge nti ngi vi ngexc essoxygenbyt he doct ororanyot hert r eat ment s

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Hel d–Thecour tdeci dedt hatt hede f e ndantwasnotl i abl easi ti snotpr ov ent hatt he bl i ndnesswasduet oexc essoxygensuppl ygi vet ot hebaby .Thebl i ndnessc oul dhav e happe nedbecauseofot hert r eat ment . I ft her ear e2mat e r i alcause soft hei nj ur y ,t heni twi l lhavecausat i on. I ft her ei snoc l earcauseofi nj ur y ,t hent her ei snocausat i on. Ther ecanbemul t i pl edef e ndant s. Eg .:Ther ear e3peopl epunc ht hemanandt hemansuffe r edi nj ur i e s.Theques t i onwoul d bewhi c honeoft he3peopl ecausesi nj ur yt ohi m.

Consecut i veCauses

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Bake rvWi l l oughby Thepl ai nt i ffl egwasi nj ur edduet ot hede f e ndant ’ sne gl i g enc ei ndr i vi ng.Asar e sul t ,he cannotdocer t ai nt hi ngs .Lat e r ,hi swor kpl acewasr obbe d.Hewasshotbyt her obber son t hesamel e gandhi sl eghast obeamput at ed.Hesuedt hede f endantf oral ldamaget hathe suffer edi nc l udi ngt heamput at i on. dentcausedal lacci dent s.The Hel d–I fi ti sasi ngl econt i nuousac t ,t hent he1stacci de f endantwoul dbel i abl ef ort heac ci dentandt heamput at i on.I fi ti sasepar at e i ndepe ndentac t ,t hent her ei snoconnect i onbe t weent hose2acci dent s.Thede f endant woul donl ybel i abl ef ort hei nj ur ycausedbyt her oadac ci dent . Thecour tdeci dedt hati twasasi ngl econt i nuousac t ;t hedef e ndantwoul dbel i abl ef oral l i nj ur i essuffer edbyt hepl ai nt i ff.Whent hede f endanthi thi m,hi squal i t yofl i f ehasal r eady beenaffec t edashecannotdoce r t ai nt hi ngs.Thesecondi nj ur ydi dnotl essenhi ssuffe r i ng. denti sanovusac t us,i ti sani nt e r veni ngac t .Ther ei snol i nkbet weent he2 The2nd acci ac ci dent si fi ti sasepar at ei ndepende ntac t .

Car sl ogi eSt e amshi pCoLt dvRoyalNor wegi anGovt Jobl i ngvAs soci at edDai r i e sLt d -

NovusAc t us( I nt er v eni ngAct s) -

Anew i nt er v eni ngactwhi c hbr eakst hec hai nofcausat i on.

Nat ur alEvent( ActofGod)

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Car sl ogi eSt e amshi pCoLt dvRoyalNor wegi anGovt Thepl ai nt i ff’ sshi pcol l i de dwi t ht hede f endant ’ sshi pduet ot hede f endant ’ snegl i g ent . Tempor ar yr epai rwor kal l owedt heshi pt osai lt oUSf ort heper manentr epai r .Ont heway , t heshi psuffer edf ur t herdamageduet ot hebadweat her .Thedamagecausedbybot h i nci dent st ook51dayst ober epai r ed.Thedamagecausedbyt he1sti nci dentonl yt ook10 dayst or epai r .Thepl ai nt i ffc l ai meddamagesf orpr ofitl oss . Thedef endantwasonl yl i abl ef ort hefir stac ci dent .Thede f e ndantwasnotl i abl ef ort he damaget ot hepl ai nt i ff’ sshi pcausedbybadweat herast hi sdamagewasnott he c onsequenc eoft hefir s tcol l i si on.Nat ur alev enti sunpr edi ct abl eandi twasunf or e se eabl e.

I nt ervent i onbyaThi r dPar t y

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TheOr opesa Ther ewasac ol l i si onbet ween‘ TheOr opesa’( shi pA)and‘ TheManc he st e rRe gi ment ’( s hi p B) .B wasse ver e l ydamage .Thecapt ai nofshi pB se ntt hecr e...