CAFS Study Notes - Includes: Research methodologies, Sampling, Types of data, Sources of data, PDF

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Includes: Research methodologies, Sampling, Types of data, Sources of data, Individuals and work, The changing nature of work, The Labour Force, Patterns of work, Changing patterns of work & more...

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CAFS Study Notes 2021 MODULE FOCUS: Research methodologies (Core 1) ● The purpose of the research Advance knowledge - Build further on the knowledge that is already known. Increase understanding - Being more aware of the topic in relation to understanding its severity, implications, etc. Educate others - Allow others to learn from the research conducted so they themselves can advance their own knowledge and better understand the topic. Inform practice - Building on the knowledge that is already known through, using evidence to prove/disprove a theory or put something into effect. ➢ Working on something until one master it. ➢ Working through a cognitive stage (process how it works, what it does, what one needs) to an autonomous (done automatically) stage on the process that one needs to get that final product. A research project may involve collecting data and reporting on the crime rates of different cities. Identifying the variables/reasons why some cities have higher crime rates than others, creates an opportunity to advance knowledge and increase understanding of the issue. Results can then be used in educational programs, allowing people to educate others. Preventative policing strategies can then be developed that may reduce crime in the long term, which demonstrates the implementation of the informed practice.

● The focus of research To create a focus of research, one must identify a specific area of interest, think on relevant questions/ describe a possibility in relation to the area of interest. It should be narrow enough to study in a relevant context, but broad enough to have practical or theoretical merit. ● Solving a problem - Having a problem that one works to solve. ➢ Using entertainment technologies every day has an impact on the social wellbeing of school-age children. ● Research question - Asks whether a relationship exists between variables in a particular population. ➢ Research problem statements present the idea, issue, or situation that the researcher intends to examine in their study. ➢ Will using entertainment technologies every day have an impact on the social wellbeing of school-age children? ● Hypothesis - A problem, question or statement that one proposes to test throughout the research. ➢ Stipulates/predicts that a relationship among/between at least two variables in a given population area exists. ➢ Could ultimately be proven or not be proven, depending on the research results. ➢ An advantage is that it puts the question into a form that can be tested ➢ A disadvantage is that research findings may contradict the statement and the

researcher may be tempted to revise the original hypothesis. ➢ Using entertainment technologies every day can have a negative impact on the social wellbeing of school-age children.

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Population group - Which group is focused on when regarding the interest Issue of interest - What is seen as an issue in relation to the population group Comparison - Making the difference, similarities and differences between different types of specific interest The outcome of comparison - Seen through literature reviews Time - Time factor like, ‘always’, ‘never’, ‘rely on’, within a particular time frame, duration.

● Sampling ● Process of choosing the people, place and time to collect primary data. ➢ Sample - Subset of the population selected for measurement, observing or questioning so as to provide statistical information about the population. ➢ The basic concept is that while it would be ideal to choose a large group of people for research, this is often impossible due to constraints (limited time, money, access to people). ➢ By choosing a smaller sample of people, it can be hoped that the findings can be extended to the entire group. The most important characteristic of the chosen sample is that it covers a cross-section of the population, and is representative of the group being considered.

→ Methods ● ● ●

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Probability - Allows each member of the representative population an equal chance of being selected. Random - Selecting people so that everyone has an equal chance of being selected. ➢ Selecting a random class to pack up the balls Systematic random - Choosing one number at random and then every nth unit after this random start. ➢ Randomly selecting 2, and 3 as the n number, you could choose house number 2 and then select every 3rd house after that in your street to deliver your questionnaire to. Stratified random - Process in which the population is divided into strata (layers) groups and then random selection occurs within each strata. ➢ The researcher can ensure there is a more balanced representative in each of the strata groups, and that the groups can be compared with each other in similar proportions to the general population. Cluster - Dividing the population into clusters and random selection is made within the clusters. ➢ If the clusters are to be school roll-call groups, four roll-call groups are selected at random and then the researcher chooses five students from each of these groups. ➢ A researcher using this method doesn’t need to choose a specific part of the population to take their sample from. Non-probability - This means that some members of the representative population have a greater,

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but unknown, chance than others of being selected. Convenience - The researcher selects people because they are easily located. ➢ Friends in a Year 12 peer group, or family members. ➢ Results tend to have the lowest credibility, as they can be biased and are not representative of a population. Purposive - Based on characteristics, age, gender, etc, with a specific purpose behind it. Quota - Researcher samples specific subgroups and chooses an amount. ➢ 10 people ages 13-15. Snowball - Often used in hidden populations, selecting participants by finding one who then refers them to someone else. ➢ A homeless person directs the researcher to someone else. Expert - Someone with a high degree of knowledge in a particular field being studied. ➢ Can make informed judgements. ➢ A teacher in a specific subject.

→ Sampling Group ●

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One can identify/decide where the sample group is to be chosen from, or where there is a list to draw the sample from. ➢ People from one’s a neighbourhood/specific community organisations, such as a child care centre. Specific individuals used for the primary data, portraying certain characteristics that distinguish them from others, relating them to the focus of the research.

→ Sample Size ● ● ●

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A number of participants are actually selected for the research study. The nature of one’s research proposal will indicate what is appropriate, a suitable sample (IRP) would be 20-30 people. When choosing a sample method, group and size, it is necessary that they suit the research project’s purpose, the resources available, the questions asked and any limitations that they may have. Whichever method is selected, it should be documented in your research so that any indication of bias can be acknowledged. Larger groups have more consistency - the more consistent, the more reliable. ➢ If it says the same thing (consistent) it is valid.

● Types of data ● Primary - Data collected first hand by the researcher, obtained directly by observing behaviour or

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asking questions through interviews or questionnaires. ➢ Originally, questions asked are tailored to elicit the data that will help the research with the specific purpose of their research study. ➢ Tends to be expensive to conduct and takes a long time to process. Secondary - Data that has been gathered and recorded by someone else, such as information acquired from the internet, videos, databases, reference and textbooks, pamphlets and statistical reports of other people’s research. ➢ Tend ot be readily available, are usually less expensive to obtain and can be analysed in

less time. ➢ Since such data was collected for a different purpose, it must be scrutinised well to find the relevant information.

→ Qualitative and quantitative ●

Qualitative - subjective data that come from research that collects facts and information regarding people’s beliefs, feelings, attitudes and opinions to gain insight into the area. ➢ Can alter based on thoughts and opinions. ★ Judges who rate performance can have different results due to different opinions. ➢ Advantages - Can provide words and images to help one understand results due to different opinions. And ‘how’ of a situation, and give examples to fill in details. ➢ Common research methods - Observations, interviews, focus groups, case studies. ● Quantitative - Objective data that comes from research that collects facts in the form of numerical data, which can then be analysed using counting, measuring and graphing. ➢ Do not change. ★ Scoring a goal in soccer demonstrates this - this cannot be changed. ➢ Advantages - Can provide a good outline for ‘what is happening in a situation. More objective and reliable, and subjective to less bias than qualitative research. ➢ Common research methods - Questionnaires, surveys, experiments

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Sources of data Individuals - Can provide data that is current and in real-time. Source of primary data, which can be collected by means of surveys, case studies or observations. Individuals may include your teacher, family members, friends, neighbours, experts, or specialists in particular areas (managers, doctors, counsellors, dietitians). ➢ Advantages: Support, prior knowledge, increased understanding, advanced knowledge. ➢ Disadvantages: Ethical behaviour, people being lazy, emotional struggles bias, not based on true facts. Groups - Can be sources of primary data, which can be collected by surveys, case studies and observations. A questionnaire to a group - An individual is completing it on behalf of the group. They can also be a source of secondary data which can be collected by literature reviews. Professional organisations (local chamber of business). Non-profit groups (Salvation Army, Mission Australia). Government agencies (local councils, Centrelink, police). Specialist groups (sporting associations). Medical and health authorities (Australian Physiotherapy Association, Area Health Services). ➢ Advantages: There is a focus on a specific field as they are centred around it, more professional data from trusted websites, save time and money, lots of groups advocate for individuals. ➢ Disadvantages: Reliability based on the validness of the website, not as in-depth as acquiring information from an individual, values and opinions may change to fit the workplace (can breach the integrity of who they are). Print sources - Can add depth and detail to the research process that could not be possible if there

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data had to be personally sourced by the researcher. Books, journals, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets. ➢ Advantages: Easily accessible, influential, valid, relevant. ➢ Disadvantages: Distribution, paper wastage, not valid, some sources can be irrelevant, ➢ anyone is able to put out information wherever they want, it can be outdated. Digital—Describes electronic technology that generates, stores and processes data Internet, computers, programs, podcasts. Can provide description and detail to the research method ➢ Advantages: Communication speed, low cost, shared with a wider community, can be done by everyone. ➢ Disadvantages: Data security, privacy, plagiarism, copyright, no access to digital.

● Criteria for evaluating the credibility of print and digital sources ● Authority: What are the author’s credentials? Is the information published by a reputable authority? Are the sources properly cited? Does the URL look reputable? ● Accuracy: ➢ Is the text well written, without spelling or punctuation errors? ➢ Is the information accurate? Accuracy can be reinforced if a source seems similar to others. ● Currency: ➢ When was the source published? Is it up to date? There should always be dates listed. ★ Check the date of publication, the date of the last update, and the date the research or statistics were gathered. ● Purpose: ➢ What is the purpose of the information? Is it objective or factual? ➢ Does it state an opinion or try to influence it? ➢ Who is the intended audience (scholars, researchers, the general public)? ● Relevance: ➢ Is the source related to the topic? ➢ Does it provide further information? ➢ ➢ ➢

● Reliability and Validity ● Reliability - refers to the consistency of measurement.

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➢ If a research method has reliability, it could be used again under the same conditions with the same subjects and you wouldn’t expect to obtain similar results. ➢ Consistency of data. ★ Just like a test could be considered reliable if a person takes the same test twice and achieves the same score, this is, its ‘repeatability’ is high. ➢ It is important to remember that reliability is not measured: it is estimated. ➢ The reliability of results can be assured by having organised systems and processes in place for preparing, conducting and recording primary data. Validity - Refers to the measurements that accurately reflects what it was intended to measure. ➢ A research study that demonstrates validity should be based on a suitable research methodology and undertaken so that the result can be interpreted with a reasonable degree of certainty and provide some useful generalisations. ➢ Accuracy of data ★ For example, a research study that requires 15-year-olds to complete a questionnaire based on what they have eaten for the past three days may be valid, as most 15-year-olds would be able to accurately recall. Reliable and valid data hits the mark. It is consistent and measures what it intends to.

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Reliable but invalid data tend to cluster. It is consistent but does not measure what it intends to. Unreliable and invalid data misses the mark, is inconsistent and does not measure what it intends to do. A larger sample size, good sample group and sample method will lead to validity and reliability.

● Ethical behaviour ● Ethics - A system of moral principles/standards governing the appropriate conduct for an

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individual/ group with respect to a specific situation. ➢ The principles used to judge right/wrong, good/bad. There are certainly ethical considerations to bear in mind when conducting research. When people are involved in research, it is important to consider their feelings and all aspects of privacy. Should protect the respondent and be morally just towards them.

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A positive feeling or action showed towards someone. ➢ Considering their personal feelings and social-emotional and well being. As voluntary participants in research, individuals have rights that must be respected. Informed consent is the most important aspect of respect, especially when conducting an interview, which may contain personal aspects. Have carefully worded questions so that they are not too personal and do not cause distress or offend. Being aware of the physical, emotional and social wellbeing of the participants so no risks are involved. Voluntary participation and informed consent from the individual that must be aware of the nature of the study and what is involved and has given their verbal or written consent. If the person wishes to remain anonymous, they should be granted it. ➢ If children are sampled - necessary to obtain permission from the parents or guardians of each child. Offer the opportunity for the participant to see the final report and its findings.

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How can RESPECT be considered within research?

How can INTEGRITY be considered within research?

The ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves, or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively. Privacy can be protected and confidentiality and anonymity assured by: ➢ Asking for permission prior to carrying out any primary research or recording any data using equipment such as a digital video camera or smartphone ➢ Selecting numbers or letters to label research responses so that participants cannot be identified on the basis of their responses ➢ Ensuring that data and opinions are not revealed to others Confidentiality - Refers to a privileged communication that cannot be revealed to another person. Anonymity - refers to being free from identification (anonymous).

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How can PRIVACY be considered within research?

The ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves, or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively. Privacy can be protected and confidentially and anonymity assured by: ➢ Asking for permission prior to carrying out any primary research or recording any data using equipment such as a digital video camera or smartphone. ➢ Selecting numbers or letters to label research responses so that participants cannot be identified on the basis of their responses ➢ Ensuring that data and opinions are not revealed to others Confidentiality - Refers to a privileged communication that cannot be revealed to another person. Anonymity - refers to being free from identification (anonymous).

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How can research BIAS impact research result?

Unfair preference/distortion Can occur when the researcher/data is influenced in the flavour of one viewpoint/angle ➢ Being specific to a topic. Personal judgement Changing data to suit yourself, which links to integrity To prevent, don’t ask leading questions, write all data ➢ Don’t only add data that is only suitable to the research question/hypothesis and disregard the rest It correlated mostly to respect and integrity towards the situation, therefore impacting it ➢ It impacts the ethics of the research ➢ There is a lack of respect towards the topic and the respondent’s feelings and opinions ➢ The data leans towards the researcher’s opinion and data can be recorded in accordance with what they see as beneficial for their own research

MODULE FOCUS: RESEARCH METHODS | QCOIL: INTERVIEWS ● Define ● ●

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A conversation/discussion between two/more people to collect information/opinions. Involve a researcher using verbal and non-verbal communication to obtain information from an interviewee. ➢ It is often concerned with their understanding, knowledge or perception of the facts or circumstances related to the topic of research. It is a primary method of data collection, which means the information is collected firsthand. Generally, the information gathered is qualitative (opinions, feelings, experiences, attitudes), rather than quantitative (numerical data). Can be carried out in person, over the phone or through video conferences.

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A researcher needs to have taken some prior reading on the topic so that it is sufficient background information to be able to develop ideas for the focus of the interview. ➢ This leads to the decision regarding the type of interview—structured or unstructured—and the development of appropriate questions. Questions should include: ➢ Introductory questions that aim to put the interviewee at ease. ➢ Focus questions that allow the provision of specific information. ➢ Open questions that allow reasons, thoughts and opinions. ➢ Closed questions often result in brief answers.

● Advantages ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Respondents having questions reworded for clarification or prompted for more detail. An interviewer judging if questions become too sensitive and adjust them accordingly. Respondents may enjoy the personal attention that an interview provides and be more willing to be involved. Verbal communication and prompting can account for variations in literacy level. A large amo...