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Learning Units: • Learning Unit 1: An Introduction to Developmental Psychology • Learning Unit 2: Theories of Development • Learning Unit 3: Stages of Development: Prenatal • Learning Unit 4: Stages of Development: Infancy • Learning Unit 5: Stages of Development: Early Childhood • Learning Unit 6: Stages of Development: Middle Childhood • Learning Unit 7: Stages of Development: Adolescence • Learning Unit 8: Health Barriers to Child Development

We all go through a sequence of phases in the course of our life.

Stages of Development:

Life-cycle theories make the following 3 assumptions:

1. Development occurs in a sequence of successive, clearly defined stages. It occurs in a constant order in every life, whether or not all stages are in fact completed.

2.

Epigenetic principle: each stage of the life cycle is characterized by events or crises that must be satisfactorily resolved for development to proceed smoothly. If you don’t resolve the crisis then the subsequent stages will reflect that failure in the form of physical, cognitive, social or emotional maladjustment.

3.

Each stage contains a distinguishing dominant feature, complex of features or crisis point. This dominant feature distinguishes the phase from phases that either precede or follow it.

Theme 1: Behaviour of the fetus LO1: Explain the 4 behavioural states of the fetus.

Learning Outcomes Stages of Development: Prenatal

Theme 2: Fetal senses LO2: Draw a table that explains at what stage the fetus can: hear, smell, feel pain, feel touch, see, habituate, practice fetal breathing.

Theme 3: Risks for the fetus LO3: Explain why maternal stress and anxiety are risks for a fetus.

Theme 4: Newborn reflexes LO4: Tabulate and explain the 8 baby reflexes with corresponding time periods.

The Prenatal Period: True or false? • A new born baby is considered to be age 0 at birth False. The prenatal period is the most important for human development (Hardman, 2016)

• Development during the prenatal period is genetically determined and immune to external influences? False. Environmental agents may adversely affect the development of the foetus (Hardman,2016)

• The environment determines the functional capacity of the organs of the body. The actions and reactions of the baby will shape its own development. True.

Prenatal Period

The period beginning at conception and ending at birth. Its end is marked by the beginning: the birth of a baby. Important for human development. Most rapid phase of development: beginning with a single cell and ending with a newborn baby. • Development during this stage depends on genetic as well as environmental agents. • Foundation on which all subsequent development builds.

• • • •

• Culture has a significant influence on people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours, as well as over how they define health, growth, births and life cycles. Example: African – ancestors are NB (families, marriages and births). Miscarriage – the ancestors turned their back on the pregnant woman and her family. Due to the person failing to perform the traditional practices.

LO1: Explain the 4 behavioural states of the fetus.

Behavioural States of the Fetus • Miniature human/unresponsive passive organism vs. Active fetus • Active fetus: exists in an environment of stimulation and reacts to it • Ultrasound technology has provided clinicians and scientist with a window through which to watch the behaviour of the fetus.

• Fetal movements: • Fetal movements emerge at 8 weeks • It originates in nerve impulses from the spinal cord, and may result in passive movements of arms and legs • At 20 weeks movements are present in its behavioural repertoire/range (Hardman, 2016) • The fetus remains active throughout its time in the womb. • It movements however become concentrated into periods of activity and periods of inactivity. • Toward the end of the pregnancy, behavioural states have been observed in the fetus.

LO1: Explain the 4 behavioural states of the fetus.

4 Behavioural Recognizable States and of well-defined the Fetus associations of variable, which are stable over time and with clear transitions between each. 4 behavioural states: defined using variables of heart-rate pattern, presence/absence of eye movements & presence/absence of body movements State 1F: Quiet sleep • occasional startles, no eye movements, and a stable fetal heart rate.

State 2F: Active sleep • frequent and periodic gross body movements, eye movements are present, heart rate shows frequent accelerations in association with movement. State 3F: Quiet awake • No gross body movements are observed, eye movements are present, heart rate shows no accelerations. State 4F: Active awake • Continual activity, eye movements are present, the fetal heart rate is unstable, and increased pulse rate is present.

Group Discussion • Do all the senses adults have, operate in the fetus? Yes, with the possible exception of vision, in order for senses to operate, a requirement is that stimulation should penetrate the womb in order to be received by the sensory receptors

• Is the environment of the fetus noisy? If yes why, if no why? Yes, Sounds from the mothers heartbeat, blood flow, digestive system permeates the fetal environment

• Are speech sounds audible for the fetus in the womb? Yes, there is little attenuation/decrease around 125-250 Hz (the fundamental frequency of the human voice)

Fetal senses

LO2: Draw a table that explains at what stage the fetus can: hear, smell, feel pain, feel touch, see, habituate, practice fetal breathing.

Hear

-Responds to sound from 22 – 24 weeks by exhibiting a change in its movement. -Influenced by frequency, intensity, and duration of the sound presented.

Smell & Taste (Chemonsensation)

-Difficult to separate in the wombs – called chemonsensation. -Fetus can discriminate between sweet and harmful substance added to the amniotic fluid. -Swallows amniotic fluid from around 12 weeks so fetus will experience substances that diffuse into the fluid – e.g. mother’s diet.

Amniotic fluid bathes both receptor types and may stimulate both sensory systems.

Feel pain

-Much debate -Pain responses from 24-26 weeks (neural pathways for pain at 26 weeks of gestation)

Fetal senses Temperature

-Anecdotal/subjective/hearsay reports: mothers report movement in hot baths -Little variation for fetus to experience temp.

Touch

-First sense fetus develops at 8 weeks -Moves away at 8-9 weeks (lips and cheek are touched) -Changes in 2nd trimester as fetus now moves toward the touch -14 weeks body excluding the back and top of head is responsive to touch

Vision

-Least likely to be stimulated during the normal course of pregnancy -26 weeks experiences a change in heart rate and movement when a bright light is flashed on the mothers abdomen.

Fetal senses Habituate (fading of responses to stimuli)

-Habituates to auditory stimuli from 22-24 weeks -Female foetuses habituate faster than males -Findings may indicate that females are developmentally more advanced than males

Fetal breathing

-Observed from 9 – 10 weeks of gestation. - No air in the womb, these movements (motion of the diaphragm and ribcage) – would result in breathing after birth. - Called fetal breathing. - 30 weeks occur around 30% of the time

Risks for the fetus

LO3: Explain why maternal stress and anxiety are risks for a fetus.

• Teratogens: Substances that have adverse effects on development • Types of teratogens: Prescription drugs, substances of abuse, social drugs, disease, radiation, maternal issues example stress/anxiety or diabetes (Hardman, 2016)

• Used to think that the fetus was safe from external influences, however it is now appreciated that the developing individual is at risk from environmental influences even in the womb. • Study of adverse consequences of exposure to environmental agents is termed teratology.

Risks for the fetus

• Causes of Teratogenic effects: 1. substances external to the embryonic or fetal environment e.g. alcohol through maternal drinking. 2. deficiencies of substances like vitamins 3. other dietary deficiencies like malnutrition • Diseases that are transmitted from mother to unborn child • German measles • Aids • Syphilis • Genital Herpes • Effects of teratogens: Spontaneous abortions (miscarriage), major & minor structural defects, growth retardation, developmental retardation & behaviour disorders. • •

•

Some effects are readily apparent at birth, example the major structural anomalies resulting from exposure to thalidomide. Thalidomide tragedy: • 1950s and 1960s. • Tranquilizers or sedative that mothers took during pregnancy. • Children born with sever limb abnormalities. Some effects only later in life – e.g. exposure to alcohol.

Risks for the fetus

The impact of a teratogen would be time of exposure. • E.g. exposure during the embryonic period results in major impairments and malformations – this is the period when the major organs of the body begin to form (organogenesis).

Risks for the fetus

• Pg. 72 – 73: Teratogens Table • Many teratogens are freely taken by mothers, for example alcohol, the products of cigarette smoking and drugs. • These teratogens are associated with the following syndromes and effects:

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) •

•

•

Fetal tobacco syndrome:

• • • •

Symptoms: small head, abnormal facial appearance, growth retardation, learning disabilities, and behavioural disorder. Fetal alcohol effects: learning and behavioural problems due to lower doses of alcohol in pregnancy than the doses that result in FASD. Dose-dependent effect: the greater the exposure, the greater the effect on the fetus.

5 or more cigarettes a day Causes retarded growth in babies and may later negatively affect the cognitive performance in children. Nicotine penetrates the placenta and blocks the supply of oxygen to the fetus. Nicotine can be found in the milk of the mothers who smoke; as result can cause restlessness in babies and an unpleasant taste in the milk.

Risks for the fetus

Effects of drugs:

• Drugs such as heroin, morphine and tik cause physical dependency. • A child may experience withdrawal symptoms, such as respiratory problems and convulsions. • Child may also die shortly after birth.

Fetal origins hypothesis: • postnatal health may be influenced by prenatal factors • The hypothesis argues that the environment experienced during an individual’s prenatal life ‘programs’ the functional capacity of the individual’s organs, and this has a subsequent effect on the individual’s health. • E.g. when a fetus experiences a poor nutritional environment, it develops its body functions to cope with this.

Age of the pregnant woman • Teenage moms 15 < are susceptible to premature births, stillbirths & birth problems • First time moms 35 > and mom 40 > who have been pregnant before (longer and difficult birth processes) (Hardman,2016).

Risks for the fetus Emotional state of the pregnant mother (‘teratogenic’ influence of maternal psychological state) • Maternal anxiety or depression influences the behaviour of the fetus & new born infant • An anxious mother releases hormones into the bloodstream such as adrenaline & noradrenalin by endocrine glands • Maternal anxiety may affect early development of the brain, enhancing the child’s susceptibility to disorders such as hyperactivity and anxiety problems (Hardman, 2016).

Newborn Reflexes • A newborn’s motor repertoire/range consists mainly of reflexes, which are involuntary movements elicited in response to stimulation, for example touch, light, change in position. • Neural structures below the level of the cortex, control these motor behaviours. • Reflexes are present at birth and disappear in the months after birth. • The normal exhibition & disappearance of these reflexes is an NB indicator of functioning & integrity of baby’s brain (Hardman, 2016). • Reflexes that persist beyond the time when they usually disappear, or are weaker than normal, may indicate underlying neural impairment, such as cerebral palsy.

Newborn Reflexes

LO4: Tabulate and explain the 8 baby reflexes with corresponding time periods.

Pg. 87

• Reflexes are NB for survival & serve as basic building blocks for future motor development

/Palmar grasp reflex

MEMO: Ice Activity: Newborn Reflexes 1. What are some of the reflexes that remain throughout life? 2 marks

Yawning & blinking

2. Which reflexes are essential for survival?

2 marks

Breathing & swallowing

3. To enable breastfeeding, which reflexes are active?

2 marks

Rooting & sucking

4. Responses to loud noise?

1 mark

Moro

5. Stroking the bottom of a baby’s foot? Babinski

1 mark Total: 8 marks

Name the reflex: 6.

1 mark

9.

1 mark

Rooting reflex

7.

1 mark

Grasping /Palmar grasp reflex

sucking reflex

8.

1 mark

babinski reflex Total: 12 marks...