Ch AD 170 Review Final F18 PDF

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Study guide for final exam for professor Jabagchourian...

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ChAD 170 Final Review The Final Exam will consist of 45 multiple choice questions focused on the material below. Overlapping Waves Theory 1. Be able to explain and give examples of the three characteristics of the overlapping waves theory: Variability, Choice, and Change a. Variability: at any given time, children have multiple ways of thinking b. Choice: these ways of thinking compete with each other for prolonged periods of time c. Change: development is the gradual change in frequency of these various ways of thinking 2. Explain why the overlapping waves theory requires research to use Microgenetic methods. a. The methods are in depth and intense. also repeated measures are used b. analysis over a period of time of development and not just separate time periods which allows to see development occurring (allows to see change over time) 3. Explain how automatization contributes to strategy change – Explain how metacognition contributes to strategy change a. automatization: with automatization, with experience, it is easier to do the strategy and frees the mind to focus on other strategies i. the first time you are doing a strategy, you are focused on that and do not have the mental capacity to reflect (metacognition) b. metacognition: reflection on strategy, problem, context i. with automatization, taking less working memory space to allow for metacognition to flow in (in and to think about reflecting on the approach/strategy) 4. Be able to give an original example of some cognitive change (change in strategy for a specific task) that would fit the overlapping waves description. (e.g., John’s research applies the description to the changes seen in the way children represent two-digit numbers with blocks). a. a child subtracting 32-12 and using one strategy; using the same strategy to subtract 15-5. Then is given 100-29 and tries using the same strategy but does not work so they try another strategy and succeeds b. giving child similar problems to use with same strategy but when it doesn’t work, use a new strategy (introducing strategies to get solution) 5. How can the ideas of the overlapping waves theory be applied to enhance children’s learning? (practice, time to reflect on strategies, providing multiple contexts for children to work on similar problems) a. Problem Solving 1. Explain the reasons children avoid planning before attempting a problem a. They fail to inhibit the tendency to act immediately b. They are overconfident in their ability to succeed without planning c. Planning can result in a wasted effort d. Often requires coordination with others (difficult to do) e. Others can save them from failure if they do not plan 2. Compare means-end analysis and route planning approaches to solving problems. a. Means-end Analysis: comparing current situation to goal (to reduce distance) i. All you want to do is to compare where you are at to the goal (where you want to finish) ii. Minimizing the distance between you and the goal b. Route Planning: planning the most efficient way of reaching a goal rather than comparing the distance of where you are at to the goal i. Decision making at every step ii. Considering multiple routes and selecting the most efficient 3. Know the ways children determine cause and effect (and at what age): (contingency, size of effect, physical v. psychological cause, precedence, and covariation) a. Contiguity: events that occur close together in time are causally related (INFANCY)

b. Size of Effect: the size of the effect is related to the size of the cause (INFANCY) c. Physical vs. Psychological Cause: can distinguish between physical causes (ex. man kicks ball; ball flies) of events and psychological ( man chasing causing another man to run) (3 Y/O) d. Precedence: what comes first is cause and what comes after (second) is the effect (5 Y/O) i. Knows what the event labeled “cause’ is and it is precedent to the event labeled “effect” e. Covariation: cause and effect consistently occur together (8 Y/O) i. Everytime cause happens, the effect has to occur after ii. Understanding of causation allows for use in other problem solving iii. Ex. categorizing things that are similar causes or similar effects (and also making inferences) 4. Describe the developmental trends in children’s tool use. (i.e., mother, objects, symbolic representations, etc.) a. Using and creating tools to reach a goal b. The first tool are mothers (6-13 months); when there is an attractive toy, they use mothers as a tool to obtain toy (gimmie, look at mom) c. Inanimate objects around 11/2 - 2 Y/O; using a long rake to reach an object that is out of reach d. Symbolic representation (3 Y/O) maps, scale models and pictures created by someone else e. Self created symbolic representation (10-12 Y/O, 5-7th grade) i. Creating a map of their own, diagrams, or charts ii. 5-7th graders made symbolic notations to help them find locations of objects 5. Provide various methods to enhance problem solving, particularly with encoding and planning, and coming up with solutions when stuck. a. Encoding: identifying critical information involved in problem (rules, clues, goals), taking in all vital info and starting to form a mental representation/idea of what solution would look like (crucial to solving problems) b. Taking time to reflect on a problem before you begin c. Plan out how you are going to solve problem (don’t just start) d. Think of many ideas for solving problem. Don’t stop with just one or two ideas e. When you run out of ideas, try looking at a problem in a new and different way Intelligence 1. How did researchers in the field define intelligence? Give examples of each component of the definition (experience, adapt, metacognition). a. 1921 and 1986 experts defining intelligence: the ability to learn from experiences and the ability to adapt to surrounding environment b. Later years experts: Metacognition - ability to understand and control one’s thinking process 2. Give an example of cultural differences in the definition of intelligence. a. Emphasis on cognitive characteristics: (Anglo-Americans) typically view intelligence as a function of innate cognitive abilities (born smart) b. Emphasis on non-cognitive characteristics: i. Cambodian, Filipino, Vietnamese: motivation to school tasks, self-management, and social skills ii. japanese and Chinese: one who exerts effort in pursuit of goals iii. Latino: social skills 3. Know how Francis Galton, Charles Spearman, Binet and Simon, Lewis Terman, Louis Thurstone contributed to the measure of intelligence a. Francis Galton: first to push for test for intelligence, eugenics (grouping intelligent people together and have them reproduce to create more intelligent people, and separating the not so smart people), using senses to test for intelligence b. Charles Spearman: intelligence can be measured using g factor and s factor, g factor = general, s factor = specific c. Binet & Simon: the first test for intelligence (first written IQ test) that focused on direction, adaptation, criticism (3 factors), class placement, multiple abilities, modifiable by experience d. Lewis Terman: modified the Binet & Simon IQ test for the U.S. → Stanford-Binet

Intelligence Test, intelligence and morality linked, used in the US army to place soldiers at specific ranks (not smart = front lines, smart = higher rank position) e. Louis Thurstone: Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (7): verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, inductive reasoning, spatial, number, memory, perceptual speed 4. Provide examples of crystallized and fluid intelligence. a. Crystallized Intelligence: knowledge that is acquired with experience, facts, growing with age i. ex. Reading comprehension and vocabulary exams ii. More learning and experience you have, the more you build up crystallized intelligence b. Fluid Intelligence: ability to think abstractly to solve problems (never experienced before) i. Independent of learning, experience, education (INNATE??) ii. ex. Solving puzzles and thinking of problem solving strategies 5. Describe the idea of the bell curve and how it applies to the measure of intelligence. a. The bell curve categorizes people based on intelligence scale b. It shows equal parts of above and below the mean of 100 c. 68% of human IQ scores fall between 85-115 6. Describe the “kin studies” and what they suggest about the nature/nurture argument of intelligence a. If intelligence is inherited or shaped by the environment b. Twin/Family study shows interaction c. Identical twins reared together is higher than those reared apart d. Shows how intelligence can be influenced by environment e. Study shows results that are higher when reared together than reared apart based on a genetic relationship 7. Describe multiple intelligence theory. Know the name Howard Gardner a. Defining the different ways students learn and acquire information b. There are 8 distinct intelligences: i. Mathematical/logical ii. Linguistic iii. Naturalistic iv. Kinesthetic/Bodily v. Musical vi. Spatial vii. Interpersonal viii. Intrapersonal c. Misconceptions: -a person with strength should excel in all tasks within that domain, all 8 intelligences should be used in each lesson 8. Describe the theory of Successful intelligence (analytical, practical, and creative components). Know Robert Sternberg a. Analytical: using prior knowledge to solve problems and judge quality of ideas (common among 3 theories of intelligence = psychometric, successful, multiple intelligences) b. Creative: required to formulate good problems and ideas, exploring beyond the traditional ideas c. Practical: adapt to or shape one’s environment, select different environment, using ideas effectively in everyday life 9. Differentiate Multiple Intelligence and Successful Intelligence a. Academic Development 1. Describe and be able to identify the difference between the performance of “good students” “perfectionists” and “not so good students” a. Good Students: high scores and fast to complete tests i. Tend to have peaked associations with a problem and the right answer ii. Confidence criterion set at an appropriate level iii. Tend to use retrieved answers when they have them b. Perfectionists: high scores and slower to complete tests i. Tend to have peaked associations with a problem and the right answer but set at a very high confidence criterion

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Tend to have backup strategies even though they have the right answer recalled (they do this to make sure they get the problem right) c. Not-So-Good Students: low scores and fast to complete tests i. Tend to have many answers associated with problem and have a low confidence criterion ii. Tend to use retrieved answers but usually incorrect ones Be able to explain and give an example of how context can influence children’s academic skills and performance (e.g., word problems, street vendors, board games) a. Word problems: aim to provide context but usually burden memory load and provide awkward context that does not connect with children’s knowledge b. Street vendors: without schooling, children develop complex strategies to calculate prices and give change i. However, they cannot come up with the same strategies to solve similar problems (ex. math problems like 4x8) c. Children tend to use retrieval strategies for simple addition problems but count dice in a game context d. Context influences way we encode a problem and influence which strategies we use Know the characteristics of specific learning disability in mathematics a. Have difficulty in executing backup strategies and in retrieving correct answers b. Limited exposure to numbers before entering school c. Cannot hold as much numerical information in memory as their age peers d. Disabilities include: limited background knowledge, limited processing capacity, and limited conceptual understanding Define a “buggy strategy” and give an example of this. How does this relate to the debate on teaching concepts versus teaching procedures? a. When children are taught subtraction without the understanding of place value, they form buggy strategies (strategies that are incorrect but are children’s attempts at filling in the gaps of what they know Know the prereading skills (Conceptual Knowledge) (left to right, letter perception, and most importantly phonemic awareness) a. Letter Perception: unique combination of horizontal segments, vertical segments, curves, and diagonals that define each character i. Children confuse letters that differ in orientation (ex. b & d, p & q) ii. Confusion occurs due to orientation rarely affects identity in context other than reading (ex. a boy’s dog is his dog regardless of the direction it faces) iii. By 2nd or 3rd grade, majority of kids no longer confuse letters b. Phonetic Awareness: realizing that words consist of separate sounds i. being able to distinguish component of sounds within words, the skill measured on phonetic awareness tasks, seems critical to being able to blend sounds together to form words and thus to read c. Left to Right: children learn left to right in one line move onto next line english writing style effortlessly seen in their imitation writing Explain the multiple pathways model to identifying words. Describe the difference between phonological decoding and visual retrieval in identifying words. Apply the ideas of Strategy Choice model (speed, accuracy, confidence criterion) to reading words. a. Multiple Pathway Model: using both phonological recording and visually based retrieval in the process of word b. Phonological Decoding: translating visual word to speech form and using speech form to identify words in long term memory i. Accurate sounding out will increase association between printed and spoken word c. Visual Retrieval: using visual word to identify the word in long term storage i. as being developed, use more discriminate features (word length, context, etc) to identify words d. Strategy Choice: decision for children to identify word from visual recognition, sounding out, or mixed method a relation of speed accuracy and confidence criterion

7. Be able to describe the connection between Overlapping Waves Theory to the Strategy Choice Model (note they are not the same thing – do not confuse them). a. Sees change as variable and gradual for things like arithmetic or spelling b. After time experimenting with different strategies, most children will focus on best, most logical strategy and only use that 8. Identify the difference between phonological dyslexia and surface dyslexia. Know how each is tested for. a. Phonological Dyslexia: particular difficulty in phonological reading, difficulty sounding out words i. Difficulty is tested when reading pronounceable nonwords (eg. thack) b. Surface Dyslexia: difficulty in usually based retrieval i. tested with exceptional words (eg. irregular sounding combos = yacht) 9. Describe factors that influence reading comprehension and instructional methods to promote comprehension a. Automatization of word identification: frees up working memory to integrate infor and can hold onto two meanings until you figure out which one is right b. Develop different strategies for reading: speed of reading and skimming easier material, slowing down more difficult material (text book), visualization, rereading c. Metacognition: monitoring your understanding of what is read and selecting appropriate strategies 10. Describe the difficulties children face with writing. a. Mechanical demands: punctuation, spelling, and grammar b. Organizational demands: context comprehensible c. Demands of meeting author’s purpose, purpose being persuading, describing or conveying a point of view 11. Define learning disability. a. Diagnosed to specific subject areas 12. Describe the symptoms and potential contributors of mathematical disability. a. Symptoms: using immature strategies, have difficulty executing back up strategies (slower and inaccurate), rarely using retrieval strategies, no foundation of basic skills disrupts later skills b. Potential causes: limited exposure to numbers and numbers related activities i. Limited working memory capacity unable to work with all information of a problem 13. Explain how various methods can help those with dyslexia a. Strategies for getting around phonological recording difficulties b. Intensively working to improve phonological recoding skills themselves c. Ex. drawing analogies between new and already known words i. Trying alternate vowel pronunciations when first guess does not work ii. Identify parts of words known then focus attention on rest of word Social Cognition 1. Define Theory of Mind and what it entails (children’s understanding of intentions, desires, beliefs, thinking, pretending, and fantasy) you should be able to understand what each of these are a. Understanding that mental states (beliefs, desires, fantasies) are distinct from reality. what we have in our mind is a representation of reality b. Intentions: children tend to imitate actions of adults that they judge as intentional i. Young children can confuse intentional acts and unintentional acts because of mistakes, reflexes, or accidents (3 Y/O) c. Desires: 12 M can use information of others eye gazes and emotional expressions to form expectations of desires (“oh look at the kitty-expect person to approach the cat the person was looking at) i. 18 M broccoli vs. goldfish cracker - experimenter says “mmm broccoli is yummy”, the 18 M will give them preferred food d. Beliefs: Box of candy that contains crayons (3 Y/O says others will believe it contains crayons) i. 5 Y/O will say others will believe it contains candy e. Thinking: 3 Y/O knows people think and inanimate objects do not think (they know it’s internal

and mental) i. Thinking about something is different than seeing or hearing ii. 5 Y/O has difficulty reporting their own thinking (do not think chair, 5 Y/O says they did not think, 8 Y/O reports they did think while in the chair) f. Pretending: projecting supposed situation onto an actual one for fun i. 12-18 M begin to engage in pretend play (banana for telephone) g. Fantasy: ways of thinking that violate principles of physics i. Imaginary friends (up to 6-7 Y/O) ii. Belief in magic (up to age 6) iii. Belief in santa ( 4-6 Y/O 80% believe) iv. Culture plays a big part in belief 2. Describe gender schema theory and how it explains the way in which children develop gender type behavior a. Organized knowledge about gender (what is for boys and what is for girls) b. Children learn through observation, operant conditioning, and direct teaching 3. Describe children’s awareness of race and ethnicity. a. 3-6 Y/O aware of different racial and ehtnic groups and begin to develop attitudes of surrounding culture b. 6-10 Y/O more accurate in categorizing people into groups and describe groups with observable features (language, food preference, holidays) i. Negative feelings associated with different race tend to decrease during this age c. 10-14 Y/O become aware of more subtle differences among groups i. Aware of how race can influence friendship groups and how race can influence how people react or respond to one another d. Adolescence understand ethnicity as a subjective dimension of how identity that people can choose to actively express i. Begin to form ethnic identity ii. (Associate more with being “asian” rather than being “Vietnamese”) General Principles of Piaget, Socio-cultural, Neo-Piagetian, Information Processing Theories...