CHAPTER 03 PERCEIVING OURSELVES AND OTHERS IN ORGANIZATIONS PDF

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CHAPTER 03:
PERCEIVING OURSELVES AND OTHERS IN ORGANIZATIONS...

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Self-Concept Model: Three Cs and Four Selves (S. 04) •

An individual Self-Concept can be described by three characteristics: A. Complexity B. Consistence C. Clarity

A. Complexity: • Refers to the number of distinct and important, roles or identities that people perceive about themselves. 1. Multiple self-view because the different roles at various times a. Student, friends, daughter, sports, fan, etc. 2. People motivated to increase their complexity (called self-expansion) as they seek out new opportunities and social connexions a. Self-concept becomes complex when acquired additional roles. » A person that raise positions at work: accountant to a manager. 3. Not only define for how many identities a person has, it is also defined by separation of identities: a. Higher Self-Concept Complexity: when multiple identities have a low correlation each other. » When they apply to fairly distinct stages of life b. Low Self-Concept Complexity: when the identities are highly interconnected. » They work all related (a) Manager, engineer) • Everyone has multiple selves, only some of those identities dominate their attention at any one time. • People shift their self-concept more easily when the activated self-view is important and compatible with the situation. 1. Example: a. manager self-concept active at work b. Parent self-concept active at work 2. Maybe difficult to change self-concept when working from home.

B. Consistency: • High Consistency exits: when the individual’s identities require similar personality traits, values and other attributes. • Low Consistency exist: when some self-views require personal characteristics that conflict with attributes required for other self-views 1. When a safety-conscious person also defines himself as a risk-oriented acrobat • Self-concept consistency depends on how closely the person identities (personalities) align with his attributes (qualities) 1. Low Consistency exist: when the individual’s personality and values crash with the type of person his tries to become

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Outcomes of self-Concept Characteristics on well Being and behaviour (S. 06) Physiological well-being tends to be higher amount people with fairly district multiple selves (complexity), that are well defined (clarity) and in harmony with each other and with the individual’s personal attributes (consistency

• Physiological well-being tends to be higher when people have: § Complexity: multiple selves § Consistency: multiple selves are in harmony with each other and with the individual’s personal attributes § Clarity: multiple selves are well defined or established.

Effects on individual behaviour/performance 1 Complexity: a Multiples selves • Defend our self-esteem when some roles are threatened or damages § One of the identities is damage the other identities remain intact. b Influences: • High: § more adaptive decision-making and performance § diverse networks, but can be more stressful • Low: § more resources to develop identities 2 Consistency: a Multiples selves are in harmony with each other and with the individual’s personal attributes b Self-concept help to adapt, but too much variation causes internal tension and conflict

3 Clarity a Well-being tends to increase with self-concept clarity. • People that are insures of their self-views are more easily influences by others • Experience more stress when making decision • Feel more threatened by social forces that undermine their self-confidence and self-esteem. b Influences: • High: § better performance, vital for leadership roles, career development, less threatened in conflict (constructive problem-solving) • Very high: § role inflexibility as a result they cannot adapt to changing job duties or environmental conditions.

• Four selves’ processes that shape self-concept and motivate a person’s decisions and behaviours are: 1. Self-Enhancement 2. Self-Verification 3. Self-Evaluation 4. Social Self (Social Identity)

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1 Self-Esteem a The extent on how people like respect and are satisfied with themselves (comprehensive selfevaluation) b People have degrees of self-esteem for each of their roles • Good students • Good driver • Good parent c High self-esteem: • less influenced by others, more persistent, more logical thinking

2 Self-Efficacy a People belief that they can successfully perform a task b High Self-Efficacy: • Have “can-do” attitude or belief across situations § They have motivations (possess energy), ability, clear expectations (role perceptions), and resources (situational factors) to perform the task. § In other words, self-efficacy is an people’s perception regarding the MARS model in a specific situation. • People have more positive overall self-evaluation 3 Locus of control: a General belief about the amount of control he has over personal life events. b Internal locus of control: • Individual’s believe that life events are caused mainly by their personal characteristics § Example: – Motivation and abilities • Have more positive self-evaluation c External Locus of control: • Believe events are due mainly to fate, luck, or conditions in the external environment • Believe that life’s outcomes are beyond their control, but believe they have control over the result of task they perform

Locus control is a generalized belief, but the belief varies to some magnitude with the situation. An individual’s locus of control is most apparent in new situations, where their ability to control events is uncertain.

Self-Concept: The Social Self (S. 10) • Self-Concept exist at 3 levels: 1. Individual, 2. Relational 3. Collective • These 3 levels recognize 2 opposing human motivations that influence how people view themselves. 1. Motivation to be distinctive and different from other people. a. Personal identity or internal self-concept b. Involves defining ourselves by our personality, values, abilities, qualifications, achievements, and other personal attributes. » Everyone has a unique combination of personal characteristics

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PERCEIVING THE WORLD AROUND US Perception and Selection Attention (S. 11) Is necessary to make sense of our surroundings and to manage the conditions that challenge the accuracy of those perceptions ! Perception: The process of receiving information about the world and making sense of the world around us. – Includes determining: • which information to notice • how to categorize this information • How to interpret it within the framework of our existing knowledge.

EXHIBIT 3.3 Model of the perceptual Process (X-Margaret)

• Perception begging when the environment stimuli are received through our senses. § Most or the stimuli are screened out § The rest are organized and interpreted. • The process to attending to some information received by our senses and ignoring other information is called: ! Selective Attention: Selecting vs. Ignoring sensory information. • Selection attention is influences by characteristics or the person or object being perceived, particular size, intensity, motion, repetition, and novelty. § influenced by the context in which the target is perceived. – Selective attention process is triggered by things or people who are out of context (foreign accent) • Selective Attention is influence by the characteristics of the perceiver without awareness. § When the information is received through the senses, – our brain quickly and unconsciously assesses the relevant or irrelevant to us. – Then attaches emotional markers (worry, happiness, boredom) that help us to store information in memory. – Those emotions are later reproduced when recalling for information.

! Selective Attention Biases (Prejudices): – Assumptions and expectations: • Notice a particular email when you are expecting it. – Confirmation bias: • Nonconscious tendency for people to screen out information that is contrary to their decisions, beliefs, values and assumptions, and more readily accepting information that confirms those decisions, beliefs, etc. KPG – Margaret Brown

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Mental Models in Perceptions (S. 13) To achieve goals with some degree of predictability and (sanity) common-sense people need to road maps of the environments. There road maps are called “Mental Models” ! Mental models: knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain and predict the world around us. •

Mental Models consist: a. visual or relational images in our mind (image road maps). § Like: what the classroom looks like b. Relational: cause-effect § What happens when we submit an assignment late?

• Mental models are important for ”make sense” of things; § They fill in the missing pieces, including the causal connection among events. – Example: • Have a mental model about attending a class lecture, including assumptions or expectations about where instructors and students arrange themselves in the room, etc. o This is creating a mental image of a class in process. § Predict events: – Include assumptions or expectations about what can happened • Problem with mental models: § May block recognition of new opportunities / perspectives (points of view) • Minimize the problem process caused by mental model is to be § Aware of the mental model and frequently question them. § Be aware of our assumptions, which often are based in mental models. § Working with people from diverse backgrounds, working with them makes our own assumptions more obvious.

SPECIFIC PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES AND PROBLEMS Stereotyping in Organizations General Perceptual (perceived) Process are specific subprocess and associated biases (prejudices) and other errors.

Stereotyping. - (S. 15) • Stereotyping: Assigning traits to people in social categories. a Transfer those features to anyone we believe is a member of that group. b The assigned characteristics tend to be difficult to observe. • Like: personality traits and abilities, but they can also include physical characteristics and a host of other qualities. § Example: we learn that someone is professor, we simply assume the person is intelligent, absent-minded, and socially challenged. c Some stereotypes are formed to some level from personal experience • May provided to us through media images (movie characters and other cultural vehicles. • Consequently, stereotypes are share beliefs across an entire society and sometimes across several cultures, rather than beliefs that differ from one person to other one KPG – Margaret Brown

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Problems with Stereotyping (S. 17) • Problems with stereotyping § Overgeneralizes, do not describe every person in social category. – Accountants stereotype (boring, cautious, calculating) may describe a few accountants, but not characteristics of all or most people in this profession. § Stereotype threat effect: – Member of a stereotype group are concerned about confirming a negative stereotype about their group. • May the concern and preoccupation affect their behaviour and performance because they will try to avoid the stereotype. § Foundation of systemic and intentional discrimination: – The bias occurs as unintentional discrimination • A person who doesn’t fit the ideal tends to receive a less favourable evaluation that someone who is compatible with the occupational stereotype. • Unintentional systemic discrimination also affects employment opportunities and salaries. • People can hold unfounded negative attitudes toward people belonging to a particular stereotype group.

• Overcoming stereotype biases § Difficult to prevent stereotype activation because is automatic and nonconscious process. – Training programs can minimize stereotype activation to some extent, but for the most part the process is hardwired in our brain cells. § Difficult to prevent the activations of stereotypes, but it is possible to minimize stereotype application – We can consciously minimize the extent that we rely on that stereotypic information.

Attribution Theory (S. 18) ! Attribution Process: process of deciding whether an observed behaviour or event is caused largely by internal or external factors. – involves forming beliefs about the causes of behaviours or events. – Perception of an observed behaviour or event is caused mainly by: • Internal Factors: characteristics of the person • Person’s ability or motivation • External Factors: by the environment • Includes resources, co-workers support, or luck • Example: § People doesn’t show in a meeting: – Internal attributions: it is forgetful, lacks motivations – External attributions: traffic, family emergency § To justify person’s absence. • Internal Attribution § Perception that behaviour is caused by person’s own motivation or ability • External Attribution § Perception that behaviour is caused by factors beyond person’s control (situation, fate, etc.)

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Exhibit 3.4 – Attribution Theory Rules

Attribution Errors (S. 20) • People strongly motivate to assign internal or external attribution to someone’s behaviour, but this process is susceptible to errors. 1 Self-Serving Bias (Favouritism) a Tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors b Tendency to attribute failures to external factors • Take credit for success and blame others or the situations for our mistakes 2 Fundamental Attribution Error (correspondence bias) a Tendency to overemphasize internal causes of another person’s behaviour compared to our own behaviour • Emphasize other persons Internal causes and ignore their external causes of their behaviour • It is not easy to see the external factors that make another person’s behaviours b The fundamental attribution is less common that previously self-serving bias

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle (S. 21) ! Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: which our expectations about another person cause that person to act more consistently with expectations. – Our perceptions can certainty influence. • Perceptions can influence prediction process using the example of supervisor and subordinate. 1. The supervisor form expectations about the employee’s future behaviour and performance a. These expectations are sometimes inaccurate because first impressions are usually formed from limited information. KPG – Margaret Brown

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! Positive organizational behaviour: suggest focussing on building positive qualities and traits within individuals or institutions as opposed rather to focusing on what is wrong with them. 1 Example: a Communicating hope and optimism is so important that it is identified as one of the critical success factors for physicians and surgeons b Generating positive expectation and hope depend on a corporate culture of support and learning. c hiring supervisors who are inherently optimistic towards their staff to increase the incidence of positive self-fulfilling prophecies.

Other Perceptual (perceived) Effects (S. 23) • Halo effect: § When our general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, distorts or perception of other characteristics of that person (traits/behaviours) § Most like occur when the manager lacks solid information about the employee’s performance on specific tasks; instead, the manager relies on a general impression of the employee to fill in missing information. • False-consensus effect – Similar-to-me effect: § Overestimate the extent that others have similar beliefs/traits or behaviours to their own. § Several explanations: – We are comforted by the belief that others are similar to us. – We interact more with people who have similar views and behaviours. • Primacy effect: § First impressions are difficult to change. § Tendency to quickly form an opinion of people on the basis of the fist information we receive about them. § Problem is when the first impression is negative is difficult to change. – After categorising someone, we tend to select subsequent information that supports our first impression and screen our information that opposes that impression. • Recency effect: § Most recent information dominates perceptions. § Perpetual bias (preference) is most common when people are making an evaluation involving complex information.

Improving Perceptions (impression) (S. 24) 1 Awareness of perceptual biases a More mindful of our thoughts and actions b Problems: • Awareness training has only a limited effect • Side effect may reinforce stereotypes • Diversity training is ineffective for people with deeply held prejudices against those groups. 2 Improving self-awareness a Make people more open-minded and non-judgemental towards others. b One approach is to complete a formal test that indicate any implicit biases • The Implicit Association Test (IAT). c Increase self-awareness by applying Johari Window KPG – Margaret Brown

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GLOBAL MINDSET: DEVELOPING PERCEPTIONS ACROSS BORDERS

Global Mindset Abilities (S. 26) ! Global Mindset: an individual’s ability to perceive, appreciate and empathize with people from other cultures, and to complex cross-cultural information. • • • •

Ability to understand and respect other views/practices Ability to empathize and act effectively across cultures Ability to process complex information about novel environments Ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural matters with multiple levels of thinking

Developing a Global Mindset (S. 27) • Developing a global mindset improving one’s perceptions, so the practices regarding awareness, selfawareness, and meaningful interactions are relevant. • Improve self-awareness • Compare mental models with people from other cultures • Develop better knowledge of people and cultures – especially through immersion

CHAPTER 03: KEY TERMS: ! Attribution Process: the perceptual process of deciding whether an observer behaviour or event is caused largely by internal or external factors. ! Categorical Thinking: organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our long-term memory ! Confirmation bias: the process of screening out information that is contrary to our values and assumptions and to more readily accept confirming information ! Contract Hypothesis: a theory stating that the more we interact with someone, the less prejudiced or perceptually biased we will be against that person. ! Empathy: A person’s understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts situations of others. ! False-consensus effects: A perceptual error in which we overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own. ! Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to see the person rather than the situation as the main cause of that person’s behaviour. ! Global mindset: an individual’s ability to perceive, appreciate and empathize with people from other cultures, and to complex cross-cultural information. ! Halo Effect: a perceptual error whereby our general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, colour...