Chapter 1 Study Guide BIO 261 PDF

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BIO261 CHAPTER 1 STUDYGUIDE

Introduction to the Body Anatomy and Physiology

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Anatomy  Study of the structure of an organism and relationship to its parts  Anatomists learn about the body by dissection  Dissection, is still the principal technique used to study the structural components of the human body Physiology  The study of how living organisms’ function  Physiologists use scientific experimentation • Determine function and regulation of body functions • Determine the complex, coordinated operation of the whole human organism.

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Scientific Method

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• The scientific method is merely a systematic approach to discovery.

• New experiments add new knowledge. Important to understand how scientific concepts are discovered Important to know how they can change after additional experimentation. • Changes • BLS • ACLS • BP in Stroke  Experiment  This testing process is called experimentation.  Designed to test a hypothesis  Experimental controls are used to ensure that the test situation is not affecting the results  

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Experimental controls are used to ensure that the test situation is not affecting the results.  For example  Hypothesis – The drug functions to treat cancer  Experiment designed to prove the hypothesis • New cancer drug tested  Half of patients will get the drug 1

BIO261 CHAPTER 1 STUDYGUIDE

– Test group  Half of patients receive a substitute called a placebo – Placebo control group  Experimentation requires  Accurate measurement and recording of data  Logical interpretations of the data.  Data is analyzed to see if it supports the hypothesis  Hypothesis accepted or rejected depending on logical interpretation of data • Initial experimental results are published in scientific journals so that other researchers can attempt to verify them. • Experimental results must be reproduced by other scientists or the hypothesis will not be widely accepted.

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The level of confidence in the hypothesis increases if it withstands rigorous retesting A hypothesis that has gained a high level of confidence is called a theory or law. Some historical sciences cannot be tested in the traditional method  For example • Evolution • Archeology  Must analyze data and make conclusions

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Theory or law: Hypothesis that has gained confidence New data may determine new theories that may replace old ones

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RESEARCH, ISSUES, AND TRENDS

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Metric System

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 Scientists, government agencies, and increasing numbers of American industries are moving toward the conversion of our system to the metric system.  Practically all pharmacology utilizes Metric system The metric system is a decimal system  Measurement of length is based on the meter • 39.37 inches  Weight or mass is based on the gram • 454 grams equal a pound

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The units of length A micrometer is one millionth of a meter.  Micron is another name for micrometer.

The units of length 1 kilometer = 1000 meters 1 meter (m) = 39.37 inches 1 centimeter (cm) = 1/100 m 1 millimeter (mm) = 1/1000 m 1 micrometer (μm) or micron (μ) = 1/1,000,000 m 1 nanometer (nm) = 1/1,000,000,000 m  1 billionth of a meter • 1 Angstrom (Å) = 1/10,000,000,000 m  1 nm = 10 angstroms = 10 -9 m. • The units of length • Approximately equal to 1 inch:  2.5 cm  25 mm  25,000 μm  25,000,000 nm • • • • • • •

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The Units of Weight

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Levels of Organization

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The body as a whole or the human organism is all the atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, and systems that you will study The body is a unified and complex assembly of structurally and functionally interactive components, each working together to ensure healthy survival.  Cells can only be seen with a microscope  Gross (large) structures of tissues, organs, systems can be seen with the unaided eye The levels of organization progress from the least complex (chemical level) to the most complex (organism level). Structure fits function  Highly complex and coordinated functions of the whole body can only be understood by discovering the many basic processes that occur in the smaller parts, such as organs, tissues, and cells. Chemical level: Atoms and molecule  Atoms and molecules are often referred to as the chemical level of organization.

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BIO261 CHAPTER 1 STUDYGUIDE

The existence of life depends on the proper amounts and proportions of many chemical substances in the cells • Biochemistry  DNA • Molecular Biology Molecular biology and biochemistry provides an understanding of the molecular physical basis for life and for the study of the next levels of organization  Cells  Tissues  Organs  Systems. 

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• Cells are the smallest “living” units of structure and function in our body. • Cells are very complex Tissues  A tissue is an organization of similar cells that act together to perform a common function.  The cells of a tissue are working together to produce the structural and functional qualities of the tissue.  Cells of a tissue are often held together and surrounded by varying amounts and varieties of nonliving intercellular substances FOUR GENERAL TYPES OF TISSUES • EPITHELIAL • CONNECTIVE • NERVOUS • MUSCLE • Organs  Group of several different kinds of tissues arranged in a way that allows them to act as a unit to perform a special function  For Example • Tissues of stomach • Systems  Organization of varying numbers and kinds of organs that can work together to perform complex functions for the body •

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THE ANATOMICAL POSITION 4

BIO261 CHAPTER 1 STUDYGUIDE

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 Discussions about the body and the relationship of one area to another assumes that the body is in this specific position Supine and prone are terms used to describe the position of the body when it is not in anatomical position Supine and Prone

• Anatomical Directions • • • • • • • • • • •

Superior: Toward the head, upper, above Inferior: Toward the feet, lower, below Anterior: Front, in front of Posterior: Back, in back of Medial: Toward the midline of the body Lateral: Toward the side of the body or away from the midline • Directions and Planes of the Body Proximal: Toward or nearest the trunk, or nearest the point of origin Distal: Away from or farthest from the trunk, or farthest from a structure’s point of origin Superficial: Nearer the body surface Deep: Farther away from the body surface • Anatomical Compass Rosette Directional abbreviations used in this book:  A = Anterior  D = Distal  I = Inferior  L (opposite M) = Lateral  L (opposite R) = Left  M = Medial  P (opposite A) = Posterior  P (opposite D) = Proximal  R = Right  S = Superior

• Planes of the Body

• Sagittal plane  Lengthwise plane that divides the body into right and left sections • Midsagittal  Sagittal plane that divides the body into two equal halves • Frontal (coronal) plane  Lengthwise plane that divides a structure into anterior and posterior portions 5

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• Transverse plane  Horizontal plane that divides a structure into upper and lower parts

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Body Cavities

The body is not a solid structure. Composed of open spaces or cavities that contain internal organs. The two major body cavities are called the dorsal body cavities and ventral body cavities. • Fibure 1-5 Body Cavities  The cranial and spinal cavities are dorsal cavities because they are located in a dorsal position in the body  Dorsal cavities  Cranial cavity • Space inside the skull that contains the brain  Spinal cavity • The space inside the spinal column

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Ventral cavities  Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities • Thoracic cavity, includes mediastinum and pleural cavities • Abdominopelvic cavity, includes the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity; forming the abdominopelvic cavity • Diaphragm • Actual physical partition that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity. • Dome-shaped and is the most important muscle for breathing.

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Abdominopelvic Quadrants

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Subdividing the abdominopelvic cavity is frequently used by health professionals Subdividing is useful for locating the origin of pain or describing the location of a tumor or other abnormality. Four quadrants  Right upper (or right superior) quadrant  Right lower (or right inferior) quadrant  Left upper (or left superior) quadrant  Left lower (or left inferior) quadrant

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• A more precise way to divide the abdominopelvic cavity is into nine regions • Nine Abdominopelvic Regions • Upper  Right and left hypochondriac regions and the epigastric region • Middle  Right and left lumbar regions and the umbilical region • Lower  Right and left iliac regions and the hypogastric region • The upper abdominopelvic regions lie above an imaginary line across the abdomen at the level of the ninth rib cartilages. • The middle abdominopelvic regions lie below an imaginary line across the abdomen at the level of the ninth rib cartilages and above an imaginary line across the abdomen at the top of the hip bones. • The lower abdominopelvic regions lie below an imaginary line across the abdomen at the level of the top of the hip bones. • •

Organs in each body cavity BODY CAVITY ORGAN(S)

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Ventral Body Cavities  Thoracic Cavity • Mediastinum  Trachea, heart, blood vessels • Pleural cavities  Lungs  Abdominopelvic Cavity • Abdominal cavity  Liver, gallbladder, stomach, spleen, pancreas, small intestine, parts of large intestine  Pelvic cavity • Lower (sigmoid) colon, rectum, urinary bladder, reproductive organs

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Body Regions

• Detailed descriptions of the human form require that specific regions be identified, and appropriate terms be used to describe them. • Doctors and nurses must use specific and localized description of anatomy 7

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 For example • Describing the region of pain provides additional information  Facial  Cervical  Cranial  Carpal region • Anatomical terms provide more precise description for diagnostic purposes •

The body as a whole can be subdivided into two major portions or components:  Axial • The axial portion of the body consists of the head, neck, and torso or trunk  Appendicular. • The appendicular portion consists of the upper and lower extremities (or limbs).

. • Axial and Appendicular Divisions • Most terms used to describe gross body regions are well understood but misuse is common.  For Example • The word leg refers to the area of the lower extremity between the knee and ankle and not to the entire lower extremity. AREA OR BODY REGION • Abdominal region diaphragm • Antebrachial region • Axillary region • Brachial region • Buccal region • Carpal region • Cephalic region • Cervical region • Cranial region • Crural region • Cubital region

EXAMPLE Anterior torso below Forearm Armpit Arm Cheek Wrist Head Neck Skull Leg Elbow* 8

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• Cutaneous region AREA OR BODY REGION • Digital region • Dorsal region • Facial region • Frontal region • Nasal region • Oral region • Orbital region or ophthalmic region • Zygomatic region • Femoral region

Skin (or body surface) EXAMPLE Fingers or toes Back Face Forehead Nose Mouth Eyes Upper cheek Thigh

AREA OR BODY REGION • Gluteal region • Inguinal region • Lumbar region • • •

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EXAMPLE Buttock Groin Lower back, between ribs and pelvis Breast Back of lower skull Back of elbow

Mammary region Occipital region Olecranal region AREA OR BODY REGION Palmar region Pedal region Pelvic region Perineal region

EXAMPLE Palm of hand Foot Lower portion of torso Area (perineum) between anus and genitals Sole of foot Area behind knee Area above clavicle EXAMPLE

• Plantar region • Popliteal region • Supraclavicular region AREA OR BODY REGION • Tarsal region Ankle • Temporal region Side of skull • Thoracic region Chest • Umbilical region Area around navel or umbilicus • Volar region Palm or sole

• The Balance of Body Functions 9

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Survival depends on the body maintaining relatively constant conditions  Body mechanisms act to maintain relatively stable conditions Homeostasis is the process of maintaining the relative constancy of the internal environment. The cells of the body live in an internal environment made up mostly of water combined with salts and other dissolved substances. The cells are able to survive only if the conditions of their watery environment remain relatively stable—that is, only if conditions stay within a narrow range. Variables that must be controlled for homeostasis  Temperature  Salt content  pH  Fluid volume and pressure  Oxygen concentration or PO2  PCO2  Na concentration  K concentration Many vital conditions must remain within acceptable very narrow limits.

The activities of cells and external disturbances are always shifting the conditions inside the body and fluctuations frequently occur  The body must constantly work to maintain or restore stability, or homeostasis. • For example  The heat generated by muscle activity during exercise may cause the body’s temperature to rise above normal.  The body must then release sweat, which evaporates and cools the body back to a normal temperature. • Homeostasis is maintained by a highly complex and integrated communication control system • The basic type of control system in the body is called a feedback loop. 

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Feedback loop  Body’s general control system  Nerve endings feed information to a control center in the brain that compares actual temp to the normal temp Negative feedback  Opposes change in controlled condition 10

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Positive feedback  Amplifies occurring change

• The idea of a feedback loop is borrowed from engineering. • For Example • The body gets cold • Shivering produces heat that increases our body temperature. • Most homeostatic control loops in the body involve negative feedback because reversing changes back toward a normal value tends to stabilize conditions. • A positive feedback loop causes an ever-increasing rate of events to occur until something stops the process.

• Positive Feedback Loop • Positive feedback occurs when a baby is born. • As the baby is pushed from the womb (uterus) into the birth canal (vagina), stretch receptors detect the movement of the baby. • Stretch information is fed back to the brain, triggering the pituitary gland to secrete a hormone called oxytocin (OT). • OT travels through the bloodstream to the uterus, where it stimulates stronger contractions. • Stronger contractions push the baby farther along the birth canal, thereby increasing stretch and stimulating the release of more OT.

• Normal Fluctuations Homeostatically controlled conditions don’t remain absolutely constant Conditions fluctuate near an ideal value Ability to maintain balance is related to age  Developmental processes  Aging processes • Body temperature rarely remains exactly the same for very long. • Fluctuates up and down near a person’s normal body temperature. • Changes and functions occurring during the early years are called developmental processes. • Those occurring after young adulthood are called aging processes • • •

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EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

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Exercise physiologists study the effects of exercise on the body organ systems.

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BIO261 CHAPTER 1 STUDYGUIDE

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Study the complex control mechanisms that preserve or restore homeostasis during or immediately after periods of strenuous physical activity. Exercise, defined as any significant use of skeletal muscles, is a normal activity with beneficial results.

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Exercise temporarily disrupts the internal environment—a situation that requires homeostatic mechanisms to restore stability.  For example • When muscles are worked, the core body temperature rises and carbon dioxide levels in the blood increase. • These and many other body functions quickly deviate from “normal ranges” that exist at rest. • Complex control mechanisms must then “kick in” to restore homeostasis.

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Exercise physiology has many practical applications in therapy and rehabilitation, athletics, occupational health, and general wellness.

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Language of science and medicine abdominal abdominal cavity abdominopelvic cavity abdominopelvic quadrant abdominopelvic region allied health professions anatomical position anatomist anatomy antebrachial

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Language of science and medicine anterior anthropology appendicular atrophy axial axillary brachial

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Language of science and medicine buccal carpal cell cephalic cervical chemical level control center cranial cranial cavity Language of science and medicine crural cubital cutaneous deep diaphragm digital directional term dissection distal

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frontal gluteal homeostasis hypochondriac region hypogastric region iliac region inferior

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Language of science and medicine inguinal lateral law levels of organization lumbar lumbar region mammary medial

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Language of science and medicine dorsal dorsal body cavity effector epigastric region exercise physiologist experimental control experimentation facial feedback loop

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Language of science and medicine femoral forensic science 13

Language of science and medicine mediastinum medicine midsagittal plane nasal negative feedback oblique plane occipital olecranal ophthalmic Language of science and medicine orbital organ organism palmar pedal pelvic pelvic cavity

BIO261 CHAPTER 1 STUDYGUIDE

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perineal physiology

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Language of science and medicine plane plantar pleural cavity popliteal positive feedback posterior prone proximal sagittal plane

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Language of science and medicine scientific method section sensor spinal cavity superficial superior supine supraclavicular system Language of science and medicine tarsal temporal theory thoracic tissue transverse plane umbilical ventral body cavity volar zygomatic 14

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