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Chapter 2...

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Chapter 2 Anatomic Reference systems terms used to describe the location of body planes, directions and cavaties Strucutures of the body  cells tissues and glands that form the body systems that work together to enable the body to function properly Genetics  the genetic components that transfer characteristics from parents to their child Tissues  a group of similarly specialized cells that work together to perform specific functions Glands  a group of specialized cells that is capable of producing secretions Body systems and related organs organs are somewhat independent parts of the body that perform specific functions. Organs with related functions are organized into body systems Pathology  the study of the nature and cause of disease that involve changes in structure and function. Primary terms Aden/o gland Adip/o fat Anter/obefore, front caud/o  lower part of body, tail  head cephal/o cyt/o, -cyte cell end-, endo- in, within, inside exo- out of, outside, away from hist/o tissue -ologist specialist -ology the science or study of path/o, -pathy disease, suffering, feeling, emotion plas/i, plas/o, -plasia development, growth, formation

poster/o behind, toward the back -stasis, -static control, maintenance of a constant level Medical Terms Abdominal cavity The body cavity that contains the major organs of digestion. Adenectomy The surgical removal of a gland. Adenocarcinoma A malignant tumor that originates in glandular tissue. Adenoma A benign tumor that arises in or resembles glandular tissue. Adenomalacia Abnormal softening of a gland. Adenosclerosis Abnormal hardening of a gland. Anaplasia A change in the structure of cells and in their orientation to each other. Anatomy The study of the structures of the body. Anomaly A deviation from what is regarded as normal Anterior Situated in front. Aplasia The defective development or congenital absence of an organ or tissue. bloodborne transmission The spread of a disease through contact with blood or other body fluids contaminated with blood. Caudal Toward the lower part of the body. Cephalic Toward the head. Chromosome A genetic structure located within the nucleus of each cell. communicable disease->Any disease transmitted from one person to another either directly or by indirect contact with contaminated objects. congenital disorder An abnormal condition that exists at the time of birth. Cytoplasm The material located within the cell membrane that is not part of the nucleus. Distal Situated farthest from the midline or beginning of a body structure.

Dorsal Back of the body or organ. Dysplasia Abnormal development or growth of cells, tissues, or organs. Endemic Referring to the ongoing presence of a disease, such as the common cold, within a population, group, or area. endocrine glands Glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Epidemic A sudden and widespread outbreak of a disease within a specific population group or area. epigastric region The region located above the stomach. Etiology The study of the causes of diseases. exocrine glands Glands that secrete chemical substances into ducts leading either to other organs or out of the body. functional disorder Produces symptoms for which no physiological or anatomical cause can be identified. genetic disorder A pathological condition caused by an absent or defective gene. Geriatrician A physician who specializes in the care of older people. Hemophilia A group of hereditary bleeding disorders in which a blood-clotting factor is missing. Histology The microscopic study of the structure, composition, and function of tissues. Homeostasis The processes through which the body maintains a constant internal environment. Hyperplasia The enlargement of an organ or tissue because of an abnormal increase in the number of cells in the tissues. Hypertrophy A general increase in the bulk of a body part or organ that is due to an increase in the size, but not in the number, of the cells in the tissues. hypogastric region The region of the abdomen that is located below the stomach. Hypoplasia The incomplete development of an organ or tissue usually due to a deficiency in the number of cells. iatrogenic illness Unfavorable response due to prescribed medical treatment.

idiopathic disorder An illness without known cause. infectious disease Illness caused by a living pathogenic organisms such as bacteria and viruses. Inguinal Relating to the groin; refers to the entire lower portion of the abdomen including the groin. Medial The direction toward or nearer the midline. Mesentery The fused double layer of the parietal peritoneum that attaches parts of the intestine to the interior abdominal wall. midsagittal plane The vertical plane that divides the body, from top to bottom, into equal left and right halves. nosocomial infection A disease acquired in a hospital or clinical setting. Pandemic A disease outbreak occurring over a large geographic area, possibly worldwide pelvic cavity The space formed by the hip bones that contains the organs of the reproductive and excretory systems. Peritoneum The multilayered membrane that protects and holds the organs in place within the abdominal cavity. Peritonitis Inflammation of the peritoneum Phenylketonuria A genetic disorder in which the essential digestive enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase is missing. Physiology The study of the functions of the body structures. Posterior Situated in back or on the back part of an organ. Proximal Situated nearest the midline or beginning of a body structure. Retroperitoneal Located behind the peritoneum. stem cells Unspecialized cells that renew themselves for long periods of time through cell division. thoracic cavity The cavity that surrounds and protects the heart and the lungs; also known as the chest cavity. transverse plane The horizontal plane that divides the body into upper and lower portions.

Umbilicus The pit in the center of the abdominal wall that marks where the umbilical cord was attached before birth. vector-borne transmission The spread of a disease due to the bite of a vector capable of transmitting that disease ventral Refers to the front or belly side of the body or organ.

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of the body. Cells are specialized and grouped together to form tissues and organs  Cytology is the study of the anatomy, physiology, pathology and chemistry of the cell) o Cyt means cell, -ology means study of  Cytologist is a specialist in the study and analysis of cells o Cyt means cell, and –ologist means specialist The cell membrane is the tissue that surrounds and protects the contents of a cell from the external environment  Cytoplasm is the material within the cell membrane that is not apart of the nucleus o Cyt/o means cell and –plasm means formative material of cells

The nucleus which is surrounded by the nuclear membrane is a structure within the cell. It has two important functions: it controls the activities of the cell, and helps the cell to divide.

Stem cells are unspecialized cells that are able to renew themselves for long periods of time by cell division. This is in contrast to other types of cells that have a specialized role and die after a determined life span. Under certain conditions, these can be transformed into cells with special function, such as cells of the heart muscle that make the heartbeat possible. Adult stem cells, or somatic stem cells are undifferentiated cells found among differentiated cells in a tissue or organ. Normally the primary role of these cells is to maintain and repair the tissue in which they are found. The term undifferentiated means not having a specialized function of structure. Differentiated means having specialized function or structure. Cells for purpose are harvested from the hemopoietic(blood forming) tissue of the donors bone marrow. However, unless there is an excellent match between the donor and recipient, there is possibility of rejection known as graft-versus-host disease Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated cells that are unlike any specific adult cells, though they can form any adult cell. Embryonic refers to an embryo, a developing child in the first 8 weeks in the womb  Embry/o means fertilized ovum, and –nic means pertaining to. These cells can proliferate indefinitely in a laboratory and could provide a source for adult muscle, liver, bone or blood cells. These don’t require a perfect match between the patient and donor as the transplantation of adult stem cells Embryonic stem cells come from the cord blood found in the umbilical cord and placenta of a newborn infant. Embryonic stem cells from cord blood can be harvested at the time of birth without danger to mother or child. These can also be obtained from surplus embryos produced by in vitro fertilization.

A gene is a fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes control heredity disorders and all physical traits such as hair, skin and eye color. Genetics is the study of how genes are transferred from parents to their children and the role of genes in health and disease  Gene means producing –tics means pertaining to A specialist in this field is a geneticist

Each newly formed individual receives two genes from each genetic train: one mom one dad  When a dominant gene is inherited from either parent, the offspring will inherit that genetic condition (i.e. freckles)  When the same recessive gene is inherited from both parents, the offspring will have that condition. (sickle cell anemia)  When the recessive gene is inherited from only one parent, and a normal gene is inherited form the other, the offspring will not have the condition. A genome is the complete set of genetic information of an organism. 99% identical among humans throughout the world. A chromosome is a genetic structure located within the nucleus of each cell. These chromosomes are made up of DNA molecules containing the body’s genes. Packaging genetic information into this chromosome helps a cell keep a large amount of genetic information neat, organized and compact  Somatic cell is any cell in the body except the gametes. This means pertaining to the body in general. These contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. There are 22 identical pairs of chromosomes plus another pair. Females have XX and males have XY.  Gamete or sex cell is the only type of cell that does not contain 46 chromosomes. Instead each ovum or sperm has 23 single chromosomes. In female, one of these will be an X chromosome. In a male, one is either x or y. when a sperm and ovum join, the offspring receives 23 chromosomes from each parent.  X or y from the father determines the gender of the child  A defect in chromosomes can lead to birth defect. Individuals with downs syndrome have 47 chromosomes. The basic structure of the DNA molecule which is located on the pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of each cell, is the same for all living organisms.  DNA is packaged in a chromosomes as two spiraling strands that twist together to form a double helix. A helix is a shape twisted like a spiral staircase.  DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is found in the nucleus of all cell types except red blood cells.  No two DNA patterns are exactly the same (except identical twins) Genetic mutation is a change of the sequence of DNA molecule. Potential causes of genetic mutation include radiation or environmental pollution  Somatic cell mutation is a change within the cells of the body. These changes affect the individual but CANNOT be transmitted

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Gameteic cell mutation is a change within the genes in a gamete (sex cell) that can be transmitted by a parent or to his or her child Genetic engineering is the manipulating or splicing of genes for scientific or medical purposes. The production of human insulin from modified bacteria is an example of one result of genetic engineering.

A genetic disorder (hereditary disorder) is a pathological condition caused by an absent or defective gene. Some disorders are obvious at birth. Others manifest at any time in life  Cystic fibrosis a genetic disorder that is present at birth and affects both the respiratory and digestive systems  Down syndromes a genetic variation that is associated with a characteristic facial appearance, learning disabilities, developmental delays and physical abnormalities such as heart valve disease.  Hemophilia a group of hereditary bleeding disorders in which a blood-clotting factor is missing. This blood coagulation disorder is characterized by spontaneous hemorrhages or severe bleeding following an injury.  Huntington’s disease a genetic disorder that is passed from parent to child. 50-50 chance of inheriting the disease. This causes nerve degeneration and appears in midlife. Results in uncontrolled movements and the loss of some mental abilities  Muscular dystrophy a group of genetic diseases that are characterized by progressive weakness and degeneration of the skeletal muscles that control movement  Phenylketonuria a rare genetic disorder in which the digestive enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase is missing. PKU can be detected by a blood test performed on infants at birth. PKU children can lead normal lives, if dietary supervision is intact. If not, it can cause severe mental retardation. A tissue is a group or layer of similarly specialized cells that join together to perform certain specific functions. Histology is the microscopic study of the structure, composition and function of tissues. And a histologist is a non-physician specialist who studies microscopic structure of tissues  Epithelial tissue  Connective tissues  Muscle tissue  Nerve tissue Epithelial tissue forms a protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the body. These tissues also form glands  Epithelium is the specialized epithelial tissue that forms the epidermis of the skin and the surface layer of mucous membranes  Endothelium is the specialized epithelial tissue that lines the blood and lymph vessels, body cavities, glands and organs. Connective tissues support and connect organs and other body tissues. The four kinds:  Dense connective tissues such as bone and cartilage form joints and framework of the body  Adipose tissues known as fat, provides protective padding, insulation and support  Loose connective tissues surround various organs and supports both nerve cells and blood vessel

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Liquid connective tissues which are blood and lymph, transport nutrients and waste products throughout the body Muscle tissues contains cells with the specialized ability to contract and relax Nerve tissue contains cells with the specialized ability to react to stimuli and to conduct electrical impulses Incomplete tissue formation  Aplasia is the defective development, or the congenital absence of an organ or tissue. o a means without, and –plasia means formation  Hypoplasia is the incomplete development of an organ or tissue usually due to a deficiency in the number of cells o Hypo- deficient –plasia means formation Abnormal tissue formation  Anaplasia is a change in the structure of cells and their orientation to each other o Ana means backward and plasia means formation o This abnormal cell development is characteristic of tumor formation in cancers  Dysplasia is the abnormal development or growth of cells, tissues or organs o Dys- means bad and plasia is formation  Hyperplasia is the enlargement of an organ or tissue because of an abnormal increase in the number of cells in the tissues o Hyper- excessive, plasia formation  Hypertrophy is a general increase in the bulk of a body part or organ that is due to an increase in the size but not number of cells in the tissue o Hyper- excessive, trophy- development o Not due to tumor formation A gland is a group of specialized epithelial cells that are capable of producing secretions. A secretion is the substance produced by the gland.  Exocrine glands secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body, such as sweat glands  Endocrine glands which produce hormones, do not have ducts. These hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream and then are transported to organs and structure thought the body.

Aden means gland. Adenoids refers to a mass of gland-like lymphoid tissues at the back of the upper pharynx  Adenitis is the inflammation of a gland o Aden- gland, itis means inflammation  Adenocarcinoma is a malignant tumor that originates in glandular tissue. o Aden/o means gland, carcin means cancerous and oma means tumor o Malignant means harmful, capable of spreading and potentially life threatening  Adenoma is a benign tumpr that arises in or resembles glandular tissue o Aden means gland and oma means tumor o Benign means not life threatening  Adenomalacia is the abnormal coftening of a gland o Aden/o means gland –malacia means abnormal softening  Adenosis is any disease or condition of a gland o Aden means gland, osis means abnormal condition or disease  Adenosclerosis is the abnormal hardening of a gland o Aden/o means gland and sclerosis means abnormal hardening  Andectomy is the surgical removal of a gland o Aden gland, ectomy surgical removal

Organ is a somewhat independent part of the body that performs a specific function.

Pathology is the study of disease: its nature and cause as well as the produced changes in structure and function. This also means a condition produced by a disease.  Path/o and pathy 

Pathologist is a physician who specialized in the laboratory analysis of diseased tissue samples to confirm or establish a diagnosis o Path means disease, and ologist is a specialist o These tissues specimens can be removed in biopsies, during operation etc.  Etiology is the study of the causes of disease o Eti- means cause ology means study of Pathogen is a disease producing microorganism such as a virus. Transmission is the spread of a disease. Contamination means that a pathogen is possibly present. Contamination occurs thorough lack of proper hygiene standards or by failure to take appropriate infection control precautions 

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Communicable disease or contagious disease is any condition that is transmitted form one person to another either directly or by indirect contact with contaminated object. Communicable means capable of being transmitted. Some diseases such as measles are capable of being transmitted through multiple methods. Indirect contact transmission refers to situations in which a susceptible person is infected by contact with a contaminated surface. Frequent hand washing is essential Blood borne transmission is the spread of a disease through contact with infected blood or other body fluids that are contaminated by infected blood. ( HIV, hepB and STDs) Droplet transmission is the spread of diseases such as measles, cold and flu through large respiratory droplets sprayed by coughing or sneezing onto a person or object nearby. The use of a facemask as a precaution helps to limit this type of transmission. Airborne transmissions occur through contact with germs floating in the air. Cough or sneezes contain pathogens that remain airborne. (tuberculosis, measles and chicken pox) Food borne and water borne transmission also known as fecal-oral transmission is caused by eating or drinking contaminated food or waters that has not been treated to remove pathogens Vector borne transmission spread of a disease due to the bite of a vector. Vector describes insects or animals such as flies, mites, fleas, ticks, rats or dogs.

An epidemiologist is a specialist in the study of outbreaks of disease within a population group  Epi- means above, dem/I means population, and ologist is specialist 

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Endemic refers to the ongoing presence of a disease within a population, group or area o En means within, dem means population and ic is pertaining to o The common cold is an endemic because it is always present within the general population Epidemic is a sudden and widespread ou...