Chapter 2- Research Methods PDF

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Psychosexual Development Sex Research: Methods and Problems 

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Sexology = the study of sexuality o Test assumptions in a scientific way o To find out whether they are true/false o To document what underlying relationships, if any, they reveal Hard to study because: o People are closed off  private sector of their life o Judgments

The Goals of Sexology 

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Goals include: o Understanding o Predicting o controlling (or influencing) the events that are the subject matter of their respective fields EX: understanding how adolescents make decisions about contraceptive use has resulted in development of school-based sex-education programs  many linked to family planning clinic services o These innovative programs often resulted in positive behavioral change such as:  Increased contraceptive use among sexually active teenagers o Knowledge about the psychobiological causes of certain sexual problems (ex; premature ejaculation and lack of vaginal lubrication) has enabled specialists to develop therapist aimed at controlling disruptive symptoms Goal of controlling or influencing human behavior should be carefully evaluated within a framework of ethical consideration Sexology  “infant science” o Originated in the 20th century o Alfred Kinsey: first researcher to conduct extensive general survey of American sexual behaviors (1940-1950s)

Nonexperimental Research Methods 

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Three common notions about human sexual behavior: 1. Exposure to violent pornography can increase a man’s tolerance of, and willingness to commit, sexually violent acts, such as rape 2. Alcohol can enhance sexual responsiveness 3. Vaginal orgasms are superior to clitoral orgasms Three nonexperimental methods:

1. Case study 

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Case study = nonexperimental research method that examines either a single subject or a small group of subjects individually and in depth  Data gathered using: o Direct observation o Questionnaires o Testing o Experimentation  People become subjects for case studies  b/c they behave in an atypical way or have a physical or emotional disorder o Ex; much of what is known about sex offenders, incest victims, transsexuals, sex workers, and the like has been learned from case studies o Ex2; information about difficulties in sexual response (ie; erectile disorders in men and lack of orgasmic response in women) or atypical sexual response patterns comes from case studies  Has been used to investigate common assertion that alcohol enhances sexual responsiveness and pleasure o Evidence from some case studies suggest the reverse (among chronic alcoholics)  Case studies of alcoholic subjects showed:  Decreased arousability  Lowered sexual interest  Possible that these effects are due to general physical deterioration that accompanies heavy, long-term alcohol use Advantages of case studies:  Flexibility of data-gathering procedures  Provides opportunity to acquire insight into specific behaviors

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Sacrifices some control but offers opportunities to explore specific behaviors, thoughts, and feelings in depth Disadvantages:  Because case studies usually focus on individuals or small samples of especially interesting or atypical cases  often difficult to generalize findings accurately to broader populations  Person’s past history (esp. childhood and adolescence) does not become a target of research until the individual manifests some unusual behavior later in life, as an adult o People have trouble accurately remembering events from years ago o Memory is subject to intentional efforts to distort or repress facts  Not suitable for many kinds of research questions o Personal accounts can be influenced by factors such as:  Emotions  Values  Vagaries of memory  Reliability of case-study method can be in doubt

2. Survey  

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Most information about human sexuality has been obtained from surveys Survey = people are asked about their sexual experiences or attitudes  Enables researchers to collect data from a large number of people  Can be conducted: o Orally (face-to-face or telephone interviews) o Paper-and-pencil questionnaires  Computerized interviews also used to gather information Methods of conducting written and oral surveys are somewhat different but intent is the same  each tries to use a relatively small group (survey sample) to draw inferences or conclusions about a much larger group with a particular characteristic (target population)  Ex of target populations  married adults and high school adolescents

Choosing the Sample 

Representative Sample:

o Researchers strive to select a representative sample (aka probability sample) = a type of limited research sample that provides an accurate representation of a larger target population of interest  Sample in which various subgroups are represented proportionately to their incidence in the target population  Target populations can be subdivided into smaller subgroups by criteria such as: o Age

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o Economic status o Geographic locale o Religious affiliation  In a representative sample, every individual in the larger target population has a chance of being included  Procedures you would use to select a representative sample that could be surveyed to assess the sexual practices of older American married couples?  Good beginning  obtain U.S. Census Bureau statistics on number of married couples whose partners are age 65 and older who reside in major geographic regions of the U.S  Next  you select subgroups of your sample according to actual distribution of the larger population o Ex; if 25% of older married couples live in the East, 25% of your sample would be drawn from this region o Ex2; if 15% of older married couples in the East fall into an upper socioeconomic status category, 15% of those subjects selected from the East would be drawn from this group  Final step  to select actual subjects from these lists o To ensure all members of each subgroup have equal chance of being included  use a table of random numbers to generate random selections from your lists Random Sample: o = a randomly chosen subset of a population  Selected from larger population using randomization procedures  May or may not be the same as a representative sample  Cannot be truly representative unless it reflects all important subgroups in the target population

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Representative samples generally allow for more accurate generalizations to the entire target population than do random samples o However  random samples are often adequate and are used widely

Questionnaires and Interviews 

Subjects in a sample can be surveyed through: o Paper and pencil o Computerized questionnaire o Face to face interview

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Each survey method has pros and cons Advantages of Questionnaires: o Tend to be quicker and cheaper to administer than interview surveys o Subjects might be considerably more likely to answer questions honestly, with minimal distortion due to the anonymity o Because most written questionnaires can be evaluated objectively  their data are less subject to researcher bias than are data from interviews Disadvantages to Interviews: o Because sexual behavior is highly personal, interview subjects might describe their behaviors or attitudes in a more favorable light Advantages to interviews that questionnaires do not have: o Format of interview is more flexible

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o Interviews have option of varying the sequence of questions if it seems appropriate for a particular respondent o Skillful interviewers can establish excellent rapport with subjects and result sense of trust may produce more revealing response than possible with paper and pen or computerized questionnaires

Problems of Sex Survey Research: Nonresponse, Inaccuracy, and Demographic Bias 

Difficult to secure a representative sample b/c many people do not want to participate in sex studies o Nonresponse = refusal to participate in a research study  common problem that consistently plagues sex survey research o Self-selection (volunteer bias) = bias introduced into research study results because of participants’ willingness to respond  Important concern for sex researchers

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Studies strongly suggest that volunteers for sex research are more sexually experienced and hold more positive attitudes toward sexuality and sex research than do nonvolunteers  Women are less likely than men to volunteer for sex research  Female sex research samples may be more influenced by volunteer bias than male samples Accuracy of subjects responses o Peoples actual behavior can be quite different from what they report themselves.  Distort  Falsify  In order to maintain or enhance social image  This tendency to provide socially desirable responses can involve people who consciously or unconsciously conceal certain factors about their sexual histories because they view them as: o Abnormal

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o Foolish o Painful to remember People can also feel pressure to deny or minimize experiences regarding behaviors for which strong taboos exist (ie; incest, homosexuality, and masturbation) In other cases, people can also inflate their experience

Demographic bias o Demographic bias = a kind of sampling bias in which certain segments of society (ie; white, middle-class, white-collar workers) are disproportionately represented in a study population  College students and educated white-collar workers are overrepresented  Ethnic and racial minorities and less-educated individuals are underrepresented

The Kinsey Reports

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Studies of Alfred Kinsey  best known and most widely cited example of survey research o Published two large volumes in decade following WWII  1) aim was to determine patterns of sexual behavior in American males and females  Respondents came from both rural and urban areas in each state  Represented a range of ages, marital statuses, occupations, educational levels, and religions

o Result = sample had a disproportionately greater number of better educated, city-dwelling Protestants, whereas older people, rural dwellers, and those with less education were underrepresented o African Americans and other racial minorities were completely omitted from the sample o All subjects were volunteers o Thus: no way can Kinsey’s study population be viewed as a representative sample of the American population o Many of Kinsey’s data relevant today  Passage of time has not altered validity of certain findings  Ex1; sexual behavior is influenced by educational level and that heterosexuality or homosexuality is often non an all-or-non proposition  Ex2; however; certain other areas (such as coital rates among unmarried people) are more influenced by changing societal norms  Therefore  expect the Kinsey data to be less predictive of contemporary practices in these areas  Data still relevant and provide one possible basis for estimate degree of behavioral change over the years

The National Health and Social Life Survey 

Outbreak of AIDS epidemic in the 1980’s led an agency within the U.S. Department of Health and Human services to study sexual attitudes and practices of American adults o 1) large sample size o 2) was funded o 3) would have allowed to draw reliable conclusions about various subpopulations in America (ie; diverse ethnic minorities and homosexuals)  Federal funding for study was withdrawn in 1991 by conservative members of congress  Regardless, they secured funding from several private foundations and yielded data that most social scientists believe reliabily indicate sexual practices of most American adults ages 18-59  Had to limit sample size due to funding  Interviewed all respondents face to face using questionnaire  This study: National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) provided most comprehensive information about adult sexual behavior in America since Kinsey’s research

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o Far better sampling techniques than Kinsey group and NHSLS study is a reliable representative U.S. sex survey that reflects the sexual practices of general U.S. adult population in the 1990s  Results = contradicted conventional wisdom that envisioned a “sex crazy” American populace but instead results reflected that American people who are more content with their erotic lives, less sexually active, and more sexually conservative was widely believed Our understanding of the impact of ethnic diversity on sexual behavior has been improving as a result of several research studies  NHSLS is a good example of expanding knowledge base

The National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) 

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2010  large nationally representative investiagiations of sexual health and behaviors to date released by Indiana University’s Center for Sexual Health Promotion o Investigators reported data reflecting sexual experiences of approx. 6k adolescents and adults ages 14-94 o Researchers used a probability sampling of a frame of residential addresses in the U.S. Postal Service’s file that includes approx. 98% of all U.S. households  Data collected from internet from participats randomly selected from this probability sample NSSHB survey is first broadly comprehensive study of sexual and sexual health-related behaviors in the almost two decades since publication of the NHSLS study

Survey Findings Regarding Two Issues: Violent Pornography and Alcohol Use 

1st assertion: Violent media and men’s likelihood to develop abusive attitudes and behaviors toward women has been subject of a number of surveys o One of the most notable studies: questionnaire was administered regarding nonoffender college students use of pornography and their self-reported likelihood of committing rape or using sexual force  81% had used nonviolent pornography  35% had used sexually violent pornography

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Indicated a likelihood of raping or using sexual force against a woman than did subjects who use only nonviolent pornography o Other surveys have provided further indications that exposure to sexually violent media can lead to:  increased tolerance for sexually aggressive behavior  Greater acceptance of myth that women want to be raped  Reduced sensitivity to rape victims  Desensitization to violence against women  Increased probability of committing a rape nd 2 assertion: Effect of alcohol on sexual responsiveness has also been subject of survey research o Study conducted in 1970 of 20,000 Americans showed drinking enhanced their sexual pleasure  Significantly higher proportion of women providing this response rd 3 assertion: Superiority of vaginal orgasms o More appropriate method for this question is direct observation

3. Direct observation  

Direct observation = method of research in which subjects are observed as they go about their activities Most famous example of direct observational research  work of William Masters and Virginia Johnson  Used direct observation in a laboratory setting to learn about physiological changes during sexual arousal  Used number of techniques to record physiological sexual responses including: o Use of photographic equipment and instruments to measure and record muscular and vascular changes throughout the body o Used direct observation as well as ingenious measurement devices to record changes in sex organs  Masters and Johnson recorded responses to variety of stimulus situations in their laboratory: o Masturbation o Sex with a partner o Stimulation of breasts alone

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Their observational approach provided wealth of information about manner in which women and men respond physiologically to sexual stimulation o Observed no biological difference between clitoral and vaginal orgasms More contemporary example of the direct observation method is provided by tool called functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to:  Observe  Record  Map areas of human brain that are activated when individuals are exposed to visual erotica  Magnetic resonance imagine also been used to provide measurements of genital changes during sexual arousal Direct observation has clear advantages as a research method  Virtually eliminates possibility of data falsification through memory deficits, boastful inflation, or guilt-induced repression  Records ca be kept indefinitely on videotape or film Direct observation also has disadvantages:  How much a subject’s behavior is influenced by presence of even the most discreet observer o Subject is aware that they’re being observed no matter how discreet Master’s and Johnsons research demonstrated it can withstand test of time  Findings are still applied in many areas with beneficial results: o Infertility counseling o Conception control o Sex therapy o Sex education

The Experimental Method    

= Research conducted in precisely controlled laboratory conditions so that subjects’ reactions can be reliably measured Increasing frequency to investigate human sexual behavior Typically conducted in a laboratory environment Major advantage:

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o Controlled environment which all possible influences on subjects’ responses can be ruled out Researcher manipulates a particular set of conditions aka variables, and observes effect of this manipulation on subjects’ behavior or their physical or mental status Suited to discover causal relationships between variables Two types of variables (behaviors or conditions that can have varied values) o Independent variable  = in an experimental research design condition or component that is under the control of the researcher, who manipulates or determines its value o Dependent variable  =in an experimental research design, an outcome or resulting behavior that the experimenter observes and records but does not control

Consider how this technique might clarify the relationship between sexually violent media and rape attitudes and behavior We consider three experiments: 1 (one) involved college men and other 2 (two) involved convicted rapists as subjects

1. Conducted with 271 college men who were assigned to two groups:  1st group: exposed to movies with nonviolent sexual themes  2nd group: exposed to R-rated films in which men were shown committing sexual violence against women who eventually experienced a transformation from victim to willing partner o Few days after viewing movies  all subjects completed an attitude questionnaire  Results: the men who viewed the violent films were generally much more accepting of sexual violence toward women than were those subjects who were exposed to movies with consensual, nonviolent erotic themes 2. Comparable research design as first one  Compared erectile responses (dependent variable) of matched groups of rapists and nonrapists to two different taped descriptions of sexual activity (independent variable)  One description involved rape  One description involved mutually consenting sexual activity  While subjects listened, penile tumescence (engorgement) was measured with a penile strain gauge  Results: In both experiments rapists experienced erections while listening to violent descriptions of rape, and the nonrapists did not o Descriptions of consenting sexual activity produced similar levels of arousal in both groups of men o Findings suggest: exposure to sexually violent media not only encourages attitudes of violence toward women but

also influences at least some men who rape to “sexualize” violence

 The experimental method also used to study relationship between alcohol use and sexual responsiveness 1. Penile strain gauge used to measure engorgement of 48 male college students as subjects watched a sexually explicit film  First without alcohol t...