Chapter 7 PDF

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Chapter 7 Memory - retention of information overtime Paradox of memory - our memories are surprisingly good in some situation and really poor in other situations - The same memory mechanisms that serve as well in most circumstances can cause problems in others Memory illusion - A false but subjectively compelling memory The reconstructive nature of memory - Our memories are far more reconstructive than reproductive - When we try to recall an event we actively reconstruct our memories using the cues and information available to us - We don't passively reproduce our memories Three systems of memory - Sensory memory - Short term memory - Long term emory These systems serve different purposes and var along at least two different dimensions: span- how much each system can hold and duration-over how long a period of time that system can hold information Sensory memory - Brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed to short term memory - Raw material of our experiences, perception of the world - Senses (touch,hearing etc) have their own form of sensory memory - Iconic memory- sensory memory that applies to vision ➔ Method of partial report ➔ Eidetic imagery also called photographic memory - can supposedly hold a visual image in their mind with such clarity that they can describe it almost perfectly - Echoic memory ➔ Sensory memory also applies to hearing ➔ Can last as long 5 to 10 seconds Short term memory - A second system for retaining information in our memories for briefs period of time - Classy related to working memory ➔ Refers to the ability to hold onto information were currently thinking about, attending to, or processing actively - Is the “workplace”where construction happens - decay - fading of information from memory over time - interference - our memories get in the ea pd each other ➔ Loss of information from memory because of competition from additional information ➔ Retroactive interference- interferences with retention of old information due to acquisition of new information

➔ Proactive interference- interference with acquisition of new information due to previous learning of information ➔ Both retroactive and proactive interference are most likely to occur when the old and new stimuli we've learned are similar - Both interference and decay play a role in short term memory loss - Magic number- the span of short term memory, according to George Miller: seven plus or minus two pieces of information - Chunking- organizing information into meaningful grouping allowing us to extend the span of short term memory - Rehearsal- extends the duration of information in short term memory ➔ Maintenance rehearsal- repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short term memory ➔ Elaborative rehearsal- linking of stimuli in a meaningful way to improve retention of information in short term memory ➔ Elaborative rehearsal works better than maintenance rehearsal - Depth of processing ➔ Levels of processing- the more deeply we process information, the better we tend to remember it ➔ This model identifies three levels of processing of verbal information : visual psychology, phonological and semantic . visual processing (ex. The words are al capital) is the most shallow, phonological(ex.how the words sound) is somewhat less shallow and semantic(emphasize the sentence’s meaning) the deepest Long term memory - Relatively enduring (from minutes to years) retention of information stored regarding our facts, experiences and skills - The capacity of long term memory is huge - Memory often endure for years even decades and sometimes permanently - Permastore- type of memory that appears to be permanent - Primacy effect- tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well - Recency effect- tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well - Von restorff effect- the tendency to remember stimuli that are distinct - Serial position curve- graph depicting both primacy and recency effects on people's ability to recall items in a list Types of long term memory - Semantic memory- our knowledge of facts about the world ➔ Activate the left frontal cortex more than right frontal cortex - Episodic memory- recollection of events in our lives ➔ Activate the right frontal cortex more than left - Explicit memory- both semantic and explicit memory are example of explicit memory (memories we recall intentionally and of which we have conscious awareness) ➔ Declarative memory - Implicit memory- memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect consciously ➔ Dont require conscious effort ➔ Existence proofs- distinction between implicit and explicit memory

➔ Also includes classical conditioning, habituation etc ➔ Procedural memory- refers to memory of motor skills and habits ➔ Priming- our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or more quickly after we've encountered similar stimuli Three processes of memory - Encoding, storage and retrieval Encoding - Process of getting into our memory - No encoding, No memory the role of attention (forgetting the names of the people at a party) - Next-in-line-effect (in a class not paying attention to what the person before you said because you're preoccupied trying to figure out what you were gonna say) - Mnemonic- learning aid, strategy or device that enhances recall ➔ Like making lists or writing appointment on a calendar ➔ Apply to everything (planets, elements etc) ➔ Having a store of knowledge to begin with ➔ Pegword method - Rhyming is the key component of pegword method ➔ Method of loci - Relies on imagery of places- that is location ➔ Keyword method - Ability to think of an english word that reminds you of the word you're trying to remember Storage - Process of keeping information in memory - Schema- organized knowledge structure or mental model that we've stored in memory ➔ Sometimes called a script ➔ Sometimes oversimplify which is bad because that can produce memory illusions Retrieval - Reactivation or reconstruction of experiences from our memory stores - Forgetting results from failure of retrieval - Retrieval cues- hints that makes it easier for us to recall information - The three R’S ➔ Recall- regenerating previously remembered information (harder than recognition, ex. essay) ➔ Recognition- selecting previously remenerd information from an array of option (multiple choice) ➔ Reading- acquiring knowledge that we’d previously learned but largely forgotten over time - Is a more sensitive measure of memory than either recall or recognition - Distributed versus mass practice- tend to remember things in the long run when we spread our learning over long intervals rather than when we pack it into short intervals - Tip of the tongue phenomenon- experience of knowing that we know something

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but being unable to access it Encoding specificity- phenomenon of remembering something better when the condition under which we retrieve information are similar to the condition under which we encode it. Context-dependent learning- superior retrieval of memories when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context. State dependent learning- superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding

The Biology of Memory - The elusive engram- the physical trace of each memory in the brain - Memories of different features of experiences, like their sound,sight and smell are almost certainly stored in different brain regions - Located in assemblies (organized groups) of neurons in the brain - Long term potentiation (LTP)- long lasting strengthening of the connections between two neurons after synchronous activation. ➔ Plays a key role in learning, and the hippocampus plays a key role in forming lasting memories ➔ Like the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the neocortex exhibit LTP-like activity ➔ There's an LTP-like response in the amygdala following the creation of a fear memory - LTP doesn't serve as the basis of memory - Enhances the release of glutamate (enhances learning) and activates postsynaptic receptors for NMDA and AMPA - LTP occurs at synapses where the sending neuron releases the neurotransmitter glutamate into the synaptic cleft- the space between the sending and receiving neuron ➔ Long term depression (LTD)- synapses in the neuronal networks can weaken these connections (opposite of LTP) - If we only had LTP occuring in the nervous system it would eventually meet a maximal point at which no learning could occur - LTD acts to balance out LTP and helps synaptic connection reset which allows for constant updating and encoding of new information - In the hippocampus and neocortex Where is memory stored? - Prefrontal cortex seems to be one of the major “banks” from which we withdraw memories - Memoirs distribute themselves many areas of the cortex - Amgadal ➔ Emotional component of memories ➔ Recall the fear associated with scary experiences - Hippocampus ➔ Factual components of memories ➔ Helps us recall the experiences themselves ➔ Damage to the hippocampus impairs explicit memory, but leaves implicit memory intact Amnesia- Biological bases of explicit and implicit memory - Retrograde amnesia- loss of memories from our past

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Anterograde amnesia- inability to encode new memories from our experiences ➔ Is more common and more frequent among people with brain damage - Infantile amnesia- inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place at an early age Erasing painful memories - Hormones adrenaline and norepinephrine are released in the face of stress and stimulate protein (beta-adrenergic) receptors on nerve which solidify emotional memories - Dementia- severe memory loss The development of memory: acquiring a personal history - Metamemory- knowledge about our own memory abilities and limitations False memories - Flashbulb memories- emotional memory that is extraordinarily vivid and detailed - Source monitoring memory- lack of clarity about the origin of memory ➔ Our efforts to identifying hr origin (sources) of a memory - cryptomnesia - failure to recognize that our ideas originated with someone else Implanting false memories in the lab - Suggestive memory technique- Procedure that encourages patients to recall memories that may or may not have taken place - Misinformation effect- creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place...