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Chapter 22- Evolution-descent with modification; changes in a population’s genetic composition over time. Fossils- remnants or trace of past organisms Strata- compression of layers of sand and mud into superimposed layers Paleontology- study of fossils (Cuvier develope it) Catastrophism- extinctions and differences in the fossils found in different strata are the result of local catastrophic events (Cuvier Uniformitarianism- rates of geologic processes have remained the same throughout Earth’s history and continue in the present (Lyel Adaptations- inherited characteristics that contribute to an organism’s survival and reproduction in a specific environment Natura Selection- process in which individuals with beneficial characteristics produce more offspring than others because of those characteristic Artificial Selection- the selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals to encourage the occurrence of desirable traits Homologou Structures- structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry Vestigial Structures- structures of little or no value t the organism, are historical remnants of ancestral structures Evolutionary Tree- diagram of evolutionary relationships Convergen Evolution- the independent evolution of similar characteristics Analogous- having characteristics that are similar because of convergen evolution, not homology Biogeography- the geographic distribution of species Pangaea- single land mass when continents were connecte Endemic- species that are found nowhere else and usually closely related to the species on the nearest island or mainland | Scale of Nature Aristotle Gradual Geologic Changes- Hutton Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics- Lamarck Classification System- Linnaeus | Natura Selection results in the evolution in populations, not individuals. Natural Selection affects those traits that are heritable and differ in population. Natural Selection depends on the specific environmental factors present in a region at a given time. | Observation #1- th capacity to overproduce is a characteristic of all species but only a small fraction of offspring produced complete their development an reproduce successfully to leave offspring of their own. Observation #2- populations tend to remain stable in size, except for seasona fluctuations. Observation #3- environmental resources are limited Observation #4- individuals of a population vary extensively in thei characteristics; no two individuals are exactly alike. Observation #5-much of this variation is heritable. Inference #1 (Observe. 1-3 production of more individuals than the environment can support leads to a struggle for existence among the individuals of a populatio with only a fraction of the offspring surviving each generation. Inference #2 (Observ.4-5)- differential reproductive success- in whic organisms with traits favored by the environment produce more offspring than do organisms without those traits= result in the favored trait being disproportionately represented in the next generation. This is what is meant by survival of the fittest- it had nothing to do with size o strength. Inference #3(Observ.4-5)- this unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to a gradual change in a populatio with favorable characteristics accumulating over generations | Chapter 23- Microevolution- evolutionary change on its small scale Population Genetics- study of how population changes geneticall over time Modern Synthesis- a comprehensive theory of evolution that integrated ideas from many other fields Population- a localize group of individuals that are capable of interbreeding and producing offspring Gene Pool- the aggregate of genes in a population in population at any one time Hardy-Weinberg Theorem- states that the frequencies of alleles and genotype remain constant from generation t generation Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium- genotype frequencies can be predicted from allele frequencies Mutations- changes in th nucleotide sequences of DNA Duplication- an important source of variation. Duplications of chromosome segments are always harmfu Genetic Drift- the unpredictable fluctuations of allele frequencies from one generation to the next Bottleneck Effect- a sudden change in th environment that could drastically reduce the size of a population. The survivor’s gene pool may no longer be reflective of the origin populations gene pool Founder Effect- When a few individuals establish a new population whose gene pool is not reflective of the sourc population Gene Flow- genetic additions to and/or subtractions from a population resulting from the movement of fertile individuals o gametes Phenotypic Polymorphism- two or more distinct morphs are each represented in high enough frequencies to be readily notic Genetic Polymorphism- the existence of two or more distinct alleles at a given locus in a population’s gene pool Average Heterozygosity the average percent of loci that are heterozygous Genetic Variation- differences between the gene pools of separate populations o population subgroups Cline- a graded change in a trait along a geographic axis Fitness- the contribution an individual makes to the gen pool of the next generation Relative Fitness- the contribution a genotype to the next generation compared to the contributions of alternativ genotypes for the same locus Directional Selection- natural selection that favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic range Disruptiv Selection- occurs when conditions favor individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range over individuals over intermediate phenotype Stabilizing Selection- natural selection that favors intermediate variants by acting against extreme phenotypes Balancing Selection- natur selection that maintains stable frequencies of two or more phenotypic forms in a population Balanced Polymorphism- the ability of natur selection to maintain diversity in a population Heterozygote Advantage- greater reproductive success of heterozygous individuals compare to homozygotes; tends to preserve variation in gene pools Frequency-Dependent Selection- a decline in the reproductive success of a morp resulting from the morph’s phenotype becoming too common in a population; a cause of balanced polymorphism in populations Neutra Variation- genetic diversity that confers no apparent selective advantage Pseudogenes- genes that have become inactivated by mutation Sexual Selection- natural selection for mating success Sexual Dimorphism- marked differences between the sexes in secondary sexua characteristics Intrasexual Selection- a direct competition among individuals of one sex for mates of the opposite sex Intersexual Selection individuals of one sex are choosy in selecting their mates of one sex | 5 Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: (1) No mutations (2 Random Mating (3) No natural selection (4) an extremely large population to offset change fluctuations (called genetic drift) (5) No gen flow or movement of alleles into or out of the population | Chapter 24- Speciation- the origin of new species Microevolution- evolutionary change below the species level Macroevolution evolutionary change above the species level, such as the appearance of feathers during the evolution of birds from dinosaurs that can b used to define higher taxa Species- Latin word meaning “kind” or “appearance” Biological Species Concept- defines species as a populatio or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring, but unable t produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other populations Reproductive Isolation- the existence of biological factors (barriers) th impede members of two species from producing viable, fertile hybrids Prezygotic Barriers- (before the zygote) barriers that impede matin between species or hinder the fertilization of ova if members of different species attempt to mate Postzygotic Barriers- (after the zygot barriers that often prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult Morphological Species Concept- characterizes species by its body, shape, size, and other structural features Paleontological Species Concept- focuses on morphologically discrete specie known only from the fossil record Ecological Species Concept- views a species in terms of its ecological niche, its role in a biologica

community Phylogenetic Species Concept- defines a species as a set of organisms with a unique genetic history—that is, as one branch o the tree of life Allopatric Speciation- gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulation Sympatric Speciation- speciation takes place in geographically overlapping populations Polyploidy- a chromosomal alteration in which th organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets Autopolyploid- an individual that has more than two chromosome sets, a derived from a single species Allopolyploid- a common type of polyploidy species resulting from two different species interbreeding an combining their chromosomes Adaptive Radiation- the emergence of numerous species from a common ancestor introduced into a environment that presents a diversity of new opportunities and challenges Punctuated Equilibrium- in evolutionary theory, long periods o apparent stasis (no change) interrupted by relatively brief periods of sudden change Heterochrony- an evolutionary change in the rate o timing of developmental events Allometric Growth- the variation in the relative rates of growth of various parts of the body, which help shape the organism Paedomorphosis- the retention in an adult organism of juvenile features of its evolutionary ancestors Homeotic Gene genes that determine where basic features, such as a pair of wings and a pair of legs will develop on a bird or how a plant’s flower parts ar arranged Chapter 25- Phylogeny- the evolutionary history of a species or a group of species Systematics- analytical approach to understanding th diversity and relationships of organisms, both present-day and extinct Molecular Systematics- uses comparisons of DNA, RNA, and othe molecules to infer evolutionary relationships between individual genes and even between entire genomes Fossil Record- sequence in whic fossils have accumulated in strata Analogy- similarity between two species that is due to convergent evolution rather than to descent from common ancestor with the same trait Homoplasies- similar (analogous) structure or molecular sequence that has evolved independently i two species Taxonomy- ordered division of organism into categories based on a set of characteristics used to assess similarities an differences Binomial- the two-part Latinized name of a species, consisting of genus and epithet Genus- the first part of a species’ name, on above species in hierarchical classification Specific Epithet- the second part of a species’ name, unique for each species within the genu Family- category above genus Order- category above family Class- category above order Phyla- category above class Kingdom- categor above phyla Domain- category above kingdom Taxon- taxonomic unit at any level Phylogenetic Trees- branching diagram that represents hypothesis about evolutionary relationships Cladogram- diagram depicting patterns of shared characteristics among species Clade- group o species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants Cladistics- analysis of how species may be grouped into clade Monophyletic- pertaining to a grouping of species consisting of an ancestral species and all its descendants, a clade Paraphyletic- groupin that consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of the descendants Polyphyletic- grouping of several species that lack a commo ancestor Shared Primitive Character- character that is shared beyond the taxon that is trying to be defined Shared Derived Character- a evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade Outgroup- a species or group of species that is closely related to the ingroup Ingroup- th various species that is being studied Phylogram- a phylogenetic tree in which the lengths of a branches reflect the number of geneti changes that have taken in a particular DNA or RNA sequence in the various lineages Ultrametic Tree- a phylogenetic tree in which th lengths of the branch reflect measurements of geologic time Maximum Parsimony- a principle that states that when considering multipl explanations for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts Maximum Likelihood a principle that states that when considering multiple phylogenetic hypotheses, one should take into account of the one that reflects the mo likely sequence of evolutionary events, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time Orthologous Genes- refers to the homologou genes that are passed in a straight line from one generation to the next but have ended up in different gene pools because of speciatio Paralogous Genes- genes that result from gene duplication, so they are found in more than one copy in the same genome Molecular Clockyardstick for measuring absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation that some genes an other regions of genomes appea to evolve at constant rates Neutral Theory- much evolutionary change in genes and proteins has no effect on fitness and therefore is no influenced by Darwinian selection Horizontal Gene Transfer- genes are transferred from one genome to another through mechanisms suc as transposable elements, and perhaps through fusions of different organisms | 3 Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya | Chapter 26- Macroevolution- The pattern of evolution over large time scales Protobinots- Collections of abiotically produced molecule surrounded by a membrane-life structure Ribozymes- An RNA molecule that functions as an enzyme, catalyzing reactions during RNA splicing Radiometric Dating- A common techniques for find an age of a fossil which is based on the decay of the radioactive isotope Geologic Record- The Division of Earth's history into time periods, grouped into three eons-Archaean, Protozoic, and Phanerozoic- an further subdivided into eras, periods, and epochs Stromatolites- Layered rock that form when certain prokaryotes bind thin films o sediment together Endosymbiosis- A model which posits that mitochondria and plastids were formerly small prokaryotes that began livin within larger cells Serial Endosymbiosis- A model that supposes that mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence o endosymbiotic events; a mutually beneficial relationship in which one organism lives within another Cambrian Explosion- A brief time i history when a large, hard-bodied forms of animals with most of the major body plans known today appeared in the fossil record. This burs of evolutionary change occurred about 535-525 million years ago Continental Drift- The slow movement of the continental plates acros Earth's Surface Pangaea- 250 million years ago, one large landmass that was on earth. Mass Extinction- Large numbers of species becom extinct throughout earth Adaptive Radiations- Periods of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whos adaptations allow them to fill different ecological roles in their communities Heterochrony- An evolutionary change in the rate of timing o developmental events Paedomorphosis- A condition in where reproductive-organ development accelerates compared to other organs, th sexually mature stage of species may retain body features that were juvenile structures in an ancestral species Homeotic Genes- Determin basic features as where a pair of wings and a pair of legs will develop on a bird or how a plant's flower parts are arranged Half-Life- th time required for half of a sample of a radioactive isotope to break down by radioactive decay to form a daughter isotope Relative Datingmethod of determining whether an event or object, such as a fossil, is older or younger based than other events or objects without referrin to the objects age in years Cyanobacteria- a bacteria that carries out photosynthesis; blue-green alga Microsphere- a hollow microscop spherical structure that is usually composed of proteins or a synthetic polymer | 1 st complex organic molecules formed when energy cause simpler organic and inorganic molecules to react |...