Chemistry in the Laboratory 7th edition By James M. Postma PDF

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Lab Manual used in chemistry 101 and 102 courses...

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Chemistry in the laboratory James M. P0$tma

Julian L. Roberts, Jr.

| leland Hollenberg

Periodic Table of the Elements dg1 1H Hydrogen 2 1.0079 He Helium State 4.0026 solid l liquid g gas 1 81 g VIII 2 See footnote b 1 2 13 14 15 16 1 7I II state Atomic number III IV V VI VII s3 21 s4 222 Li

Be Lithium Beryllium s 11 2 8 Na 1 Electrons in each electron shell Element symbol a s s 5 23 s 6 24 g7 25 g8 26 g9 27 g 10 28B C N O F Ne Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine N eon 6.941 9.0122 Average atomic

10.81 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 2 0.179 s 11 28 s 12

28doi 3 Na 1 Mg 2 Sodium Magnesium 22.990 24.305 s s s s 22 massc s 13 28 s 14 28 s 15 28 s 16 28 g 17 28 g 18 2 8 Al 3 Si 4

P 5 S 6 Cl 7 Ar 8 Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.06 35.453 39.948 s 24 28 sss s 28 s 29 28 30 28 s 31 28 s 32 28 s 33 28

s 34 28 l 35 28 g 36 284 Ti Cr 13 1 Ni Cu 18 1 Zn 18 2 Ga 18 3 Ge 18 4 As 18 5 Se 18 6 Br 18 7 Kr 18 8 Titanium Chromium Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine

K rypton 47.87 51.996 58.693 63.546 65.41 69.72 72.64 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80 s 50 51 52 53 28 5 45 Sn Sb Te Tin Antimony Tellurium s s s I Iodine 18 18 7 Xe Xenon 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 1 31.29 55

s s 8 56 Cs At Cesium A statine 132.91 (210) 7 70 Lanthanide Series Yb Ytterbium 173.04 Actinide Series u unstable artificially synthesized Sodium elements 22.990 3456789 10 11 12 r e P 19 28 20 28 21 28K Potassium 39.098 Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Symbols and names: the symbols and names of the elements, and their spellings are those recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC - http://www.iupac.org/). Group labels: the numeric system (1 28 s 23 2881 Ca 82 Sc

92 25 28 26 28 27 2 8 10 2 V 11 2 28 s Mn 13 2 Fe 14 2 Co 15 2 16 2 Calcium Scandium Vanadium Manganese Iron Cobalt 40.08 44.956 50.942 54.938 55.845 58.933 41 42 28 u 43 s 44 28 s 45 s 46

28 s 47 28 s 48 28 s 49 s 28 s 28 s 28 s g 2 8 Nb Niobium s 37 28 s 38 28 s 39 28 s 40 2 8 Rb Rubidium 18 8 1 Sr Strontium Mo Molybdenum 18 13 1 Tc Technetium Cd

In Cadmium Indium 114.82 2 8 18 32 18 1 Ru Ruthenium Pd Ag Palladium Silver s 2 8 18 8 2 Y Yttrium 18 15 1 Rh Rhodium 18 18 2 112.41 l 80 2 8 Hg Mercury 18 32 18 2 200.59 18 9 2 Zr Zirconium 18 10 2 18 12 1 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 1 4 5 6

8 85.468 87.62 88.906 91.22 92.906 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 s 28 s 56 28 s 71 28 s 72 28 s 73 28 74 s s 76 28 s s 78 28 79 82 83 84

86 18 18 8 1 Ba Barium Os Osmium 18 32 14 2 Pt Platinum 18 32 17 1 18 18 8 2 Rn Radon 190.2 195.08 ( 222) Lu Lutetium 18 32 9 2 Hf Hafnium 18 32 10 2 W Tungsten Au Pb Bi Po Gold Lead Bismuth P olonium 137.33 174.97 183.84 196.97 207.2 208.98 (209) Ta Tantalum 2

2 28 8 8 18 18 18 14 16 18 1 1 3 75 77 28 81 18 32 11 2 Tl Thallium 178.49 180.95 204.38 s 87 suuu 105 u u u u 110 Fr Db Ds Francium Darmstadtium (223) (262) (281) 2 28 8 s 2 28 8 Re Rhenium 18 32 13 2 Ir Iridium

18 32 15 2 18 32 18 3 186.21 192.22 28 28 s28 g 2 8 18 18 18 18 18 18 32 32 32 32 32 32 12 18 18 18 18 18 2 4 5 6 7 8 28 88 28 103 28 104 28 28 u 106 28 107

28 108 28 109 28 u 111 18 32 18 8 Ra 18 32 Lr 18 32 Radium 18 18 32 32 18 8 Lawrencium 32 9 32 15 Rf 32 Rg Roentgenium 2 (283) 18 32 32 Sg 18 32 32 Bh 18 32 32 Hs 18 32 32 Mt 1 (226) 2 (262) 2 (261) 10 2 11 12

13 14 2 (266) 2 (264) 2 (277) 2 (268) s 59 28 s 60 28 61 28 62 28 63 28 64 28 65 28 s 66 28 67 28 68 28 69 28 2 8 Pr Praseodymium 18 21 8 2 u s s

s s s s s s Nd Neodymium 18 22 8 2 Pm Promethium 18 23 8 2 Sm Er Tm Samarium Erbium Thulium 18 18 24 32 8 82 2 168.93 102 No Nobelium (259) Eu Europium 18 18 25 31 8 82 2 167.26 101 Md Mendelevium (258) Gd Gadolinium 18 25 9 2 Tb Dy Ho Terbium Dysprosium

Holmium 18 18 27 30 8 82 2 164.93 100 Fm Fermium (257) 18 18 28 29 8 82 2 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 s 91 28 s 92 28 u 93 28 u 94 28 u 95 28 96 28 u 97 u 98

u 99 u u Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Pu Am Neptunium Plutonium Americium s 57 28 s 58 2 8 La Lanthanum 18 18 9 2 Ce Cerium Cm Curium 18 32 25 9 18 20 8 2 138.91 140.12 s 89 28 s 90 28 2 2 2 28 8 8 8 Bk Cf

Es Berkelium Californium Einsteinium (231) (238) (237) (244) (243) (247) 2 (247) (251) (252) 28 u 2 8 Ac Actinium 18 32 18 9 Thorium Th 18 32 18 10 18 18 18 18 18 32 32 32 32 32 20 21 22 24 25 9 9 9 8 8 u 18

18 18 18 18 18 32 32 32 32 32 32 27 28 29 30 31 32 8 8 8 8 8 8 (227) 2 (232) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 abc d _ 18) used here is current IUPAC convention. Atomic weights (mean relative masses): Apart from the

heaviest elements these are the IUPAC 2001 values and given to 5 significant figures. Elements for which the atomic weight is given within parenthesis have no stable nuclides and are represented by the element’s longest lived isotope. Location of Hydrogen: Please see the following article for the reasoning behind the placement of Hydrogen over Carbon. Cronyn, Marshall W. “The Proper Place for Hydrogen in the Periodic Table,” J. Chem. Educ. 2003, 80, 947–951.

Chemistry in the Laboratory Seventh Edition

James M. Postma California State University, Chico Julian L. Roberts University of Redlands J. Leland Hollenberg University of Redlands W. H. FREEMAN AND COMPANY NEW YORK

Publisher: Clancy Marshall Sponsoring Editor: Kathryn Treadway Media and Supplements Editor: Dave Quinn Project Editor: Vivien Weiss Marketing Manager: John Britch Design Manager and Cover Designer: Victoria Tomaselli Illustrations: Fine Line Illustrations Senior Illustration Coordinator: Bill Page Production Coordinator: Paul W. Rohloff Composition: Prepare, Inc. Manufacturing: RR Donnelley Library of Congress Control Number: 2009925431 © 2010 by W. H. Freeman and Company. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America First printing W. H. Freeman and Company 41 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10010 Houndmills, Basingstoke RG21 6XS, England www.whfreeman.com

To our colleagues whose stimulating writing in the Journal of Chemical Education and now on the Web has inspired us.

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CONTENTS Preface EXPERIMENT 10 The Estimation of Avogadro’s Number FIRST-DAY INSTRUCTIONS Welcome to the Chemistry Lab EXPERIMENT 11

Introduction The Molar Volume of Dioxygen and Other Gases EXPERIMENT 1 EXPERIMENT 12

Scientific Measurements The Molar Mass of a Gas A Reduced Scale Method EXPERIMENT 2 Mass and Volume Relationships EXPERIMENT 13 The Reactivity of Metals with Hydrochloric Acid EXPERIMENT 3 Forensic Chemistry: Crime Scene Investigation EXPERIMENT 14 The Heat Capacity of Metals EXPERIMENT 4 Observing the Reactions of Household EXPERIMENT 15 Chemicals

Enthalpy Changes in Chemical Reactions Deductive Chemical Reasoning Hess’s Law EXPERIMENT 5

EXPERIMENT 16 A Cycle of Copper Reactions The Enthalpy of Combustion of a Vegetable Oil EXPERIMENT 6

EXPERIMENT 17 Synthesis of a Chemical Compound: Making Emission Spectra and the Electronic Structure Alum from Aluminum of Atoms The Hydrogen Atom Spectrum EXPERIMENT 7 The Chemistry of Oxygen: Basic and Acidic EXPERIMENT 18 Oxides and the Periodic Table Ionic and Covalent Bonding Conductivity of Solutions of Ionic and Covalent EXPERIMENT 8 Determination of a Chemical Formula Compounds

The Reaction of Iodine with Zinc STUDY ASSIGNMENT B Writing Lewis Structures EXPERIMENT 9 Determination of a Chemical Formula EXPERIMENT 19 by Titration

Models of Molecular Shapes The Reaction of Calcium with Water VSEPR Theory and Orbital Hybridization STUDY ASSIGNMENT A

EXPERIMENT 20 The Language of Chemistry: Chemical Intermolecular Forces Nomenclature Slime Gel: Making and Killing Slime v

EXPERIMENT 21 Liquids and Solids The Vapor Pressure and Enthalpy of Vaporization of Water The Enthalpy of Fusion of Water EXPERIMENT 22 Colligative Properties The Molar Mass of a Soluble Substance by Freezing-Point Depression EXPERIMENT 23 Some Examples of Chemical Equilibria Le Châtelier’s Principle EXPERIMENT 24 Determination of an Equilibrium Constant by Spectrophotometry The Iron(III)–Thiocyanate Complex Ion EXPERIMENT 25 Factors Affecting the Rates of Chemical Reactions EXPERIMENT 26 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction Chemical Kinetics EXPERIMENT 27 The pH Scale and Acid–Base Titrations Standardization of NaOH Solution The Titration of Vinegar and Stomach Antacids EXPERIMENT 28 Determination of the Molar Mass and Ionization Constant of a Weak Acid EXPERIMENT 29 What’s in Your Drinking Water? Comparing Tap Water and Bottled Water EXPERIMENT 30 The Solubility Product Constant of Calcium Iodate, Ca(IO 3

) 2 vi Contents

EXPERIMENT 31 Identification of the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metal Ions Analysis of Cations in Seawater EXPERIMENT 32 The Qualitative Analysis of Some Common Anions Analysis of Anions in Seawater EXPERIMENT 33 An Introduction to Green Chemistry: Making Biodiesel and Soap from Vegetable Oils and Fats EXPERIMENT 34 Oxidation–Reduction Electron Transfer Reactions EXPERIMENT 35 Redox Titrations The Oxidizing Capacity of a Household Cleanser or Liquid Bleach EXPERIMENT 36 Electrochemical Cells

EXPERIMENT 37 Electrochemical Puzzles Metal Corrosion and Anodic Protection The Golden Penny Experiment EXPERIMENT 38 The Chemistry of Some Nonmetals EXPERIMENT 39 Equilibria of Coordination Compounds EXPERIMENT 40 Atmospheric Chemistry of Nitrogen Monoxide Smog and Acid Rain EXPERIMENT 41 Ozone in the Atmosphere A Web-Based Lab Activity

EXPERIMENT 42 Ultraviolet Light, Sunscreens, and DNA EXPERIMENT 43 Natural Radioactivity The Half-Life of Potassium-40 in Potassium Chloride APPENDIX: TABLES OF DATA Table 1.

The International System (SI) of Units and Conversion Factors Table 2. Fundamental Physical and Mathematical Constants Table 3. Vapor Pressure of Water at Different Temperatures Table 4. Concentration of Desk Acid and Base Solutions Contents vii

Color Table 5.

Changes and pH Intervals of Some Important Indicators Table 6. Equilibrium Constants for the Ionization of Acids and Bases (25 °C) Table 7. Equilibrium Constants for the Dissociation of Complex Ions, Amphoteric Hydroxides, and Weak Salts (25 °C) Table 8. Solubility of Some Common Salts and Hydroxides at Approximately 25 °C Table 9. Solubility Product Constants (18–25 °C) Table 10. Standard Reduction Potentials (25 °C) Table 11. International Atomic Masses (Based on C12 = 12 Exactly) Table 12. Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry

Note to Users of Atkins and Jones, Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight The table below shows the Experiments and Study Assignments in this manual that are suggested as compan- ions to the chapters of Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight, by Atkins and Jones Chapter Number Experiment Number A, B, C: Matter and Energy; Elements and Atoms; Compounds 1, 2 D: The Nomenclature of Compounds Study Assignment A E, F: Moles and Molar Masses; Determination 6, 8, 9, 10 of Chemical Formulas G: Mixtures and Solutions 3 H: Chemical Equations 4, 5, 8, 9 I, J, K: Aqueous Solutions and Precipitation; 5, 7, Study Assignment A, Acids and Bases; Redox Reactions 18, 34, 35 L, M: Reaction Stoichiometry; Limiting Reactants 5, 8, 9 1. Atoms: The Quantum World 17 2. Chemical Bonds 18, Study Assignment B 3. Molecular Shape and Structure 19 4. The Properties of Gases 11, 12, 13 5. Liquids and Solids 20 6. Inorganic Materials 42 7. Thermodynamics: The First Law 14, 15, 16 8. Thermodynamics: The Second and Third Laws 9. Physical Equilibria 21, 22 10. Chemical Equilibria 23, 24 11. Acids and Bases 27, 28 12. Aqueous Equilibria 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 13. Electrochemistry 34, 36, 37 14. Chemical Kinetics and the Elements: The First Four 9, 13, 25, 26, 31 Main Groups 15. The Elements: The Last Four Main Groups 7, 38, 40, 41 16. The d Block: Metals in Transition 24, 39 17. Nuclear Chemistry 43 18. Organic Chemistry I: The Hydrocarbons 19. Organic Chemistry II: Functional Groups 20, 42 viii...