Cities of Vesuvius Syllabus Notes PDF

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Pompeii Cities of Vesuvius Syllabus Notes, Core Ancient History ...

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CITIES OF VESUVIUS: POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 1. 1.1 1.2 2.

GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING, NATURAL FEATURES AND RESOURCES

PLANS AND STREETSCAPES THE NATURE OF SOURCES AND EVIDENCE

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2.1 THE RANGE OF AVAILABLE SOURCES, BOTH WRITTEN AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL, INCLUDING ANCIENT WRITERS, OFFICIAL INSCRIPTIONS, GRAFFITI, WALL PAINTINGS, STATUES, MOSAICS, HUMAN AND ANIMAL REMAINS 4 2.2 THE LIMITATIONS, RELIABILITY AND EVALUATION OF SOURCES 7 2.3 THE EVIDENCE PROVIDED BY THE SOURCES FROM POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM FOR 8 2.3.1 THE ERUPTION 8 2.3.2 THE ECONOMY: TRADE, COMMERCE, INDUSTRIES, OCCUPATIONS 9 2.3.3 SOCIAL STRUCTURE: MEN, WOMEN, FREEDMEN, SLAVES 13 2.3.4 LOCAL POLITICAL LIFE 15 2.3.5 EVERYDAY LIFE: LEISURE ACTIVITIES, FOOD AND DINING, CLOTHING, HEALTH, BATHS, WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION 17 2.3.6 PUBLIC BUILDINGS – BASILICAS, TEMPLES, FORA, THEATRES, PALAESTRA, AMPHITHEATRES 19 2.3.7 PRIVATE BUILDINGS – VILLAS, HOUSES, SHOPS 21 2.3.8 INFLUENCE OF GREEK AND EGYPTIAN CULTURES: ART, ARCHITECTURE, RELIGION 25 2.3.9 RELIGION: TEMPLES, HOUSEHOLD GODS, FOREIGN CULTS, TOMBS 25 3.

INVESTIGATING, RECONSTRUCTING AND PRESERVING THE PAST

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3.1 CHANGING METHODS AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURY ARCHAEOLOGISTS TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 29 3.2 CHANGING INTERPRETATIONS: IMPACTS OF NEW RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGIES 30 3.3 ISSUES OF CONSERVATION AND RECONSTRUCTION: ITALIAN AND INTERNATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES; IMPACT OF TOURISM 34 3.4 ETHICAL ISSUES: STUDY AND DISPLAY OF HUMAN REMAINS 34

1. Geographical context 1.1 the geographical setting, natural features and resources Geography:  Ancient Pompeii and Herculaneum were located in the fertile, crescent-shaped volcanic plain in southern Italy known as Campania.  The Romans referred to this area at the foot of the Apennine escarpment, extending from the Volturno River in the north to the mountains of the Sorrentine Peninsula in the south, as Campania felix.  Pliny the Elder, a well known naturalist who lived in the 1st century AD, agreed with Florus that Campania was ‘one of the loveliest places on earth…” o “Campania has a wealth of different kinds of forest… an abundance of corn, vines and olives, splendid fleeces… fine-necked bulls… rich sources of rivers and sources… Its many seas and harbours are open to commerce.”  The whole landscape of Campania is the result of volcanic forces.  The Sarno Plain was dotted with mounds and spurs formed by ancient lava flows, providing strategic sites for settlement. Pompeii occupied the largest of these spurs, giving it a commanding position overlooking the mouth of the Sarno River and the sea. It caught the breezes from both sea and mountains which tempered the heat of summer.  Herculaneum, on the coast, was built on a steeply sloping spur of land that projected from the lower slope Vesuvius, ending in a cliff face. The promontory (point jutting into sea) was bounded on both sides by deep ravines (narrow gorges). However, it benefited from the moderating influence of the sea and caught the breezes of the south-west. The views from houses built on terraces descending to the edge of the cliff made it an ideal resort town. o Strabo comments that nowhere could a period of residence and leisure be more agreeable.  Campanian coastline praised for its beauty faces the Tyrrhenian sea, with a wide sweep of the Bay of Naples partially enclosed by peninsulas.

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Bay provided a number of safe anchorages, such as at Misenum to the west where a double shaped basin made a perfect natural harbour, reinforced during the reign of Augustus and later becoming the main naval station of the Roman fleet. Greek port settlements along its northern shore had trading connections with the Greek East, contributing to the prosperity of the other settlements in Campania. Columella talks about the delightful estuarine marshes of Pompeii. According to Seneca, where the Stabian and Sorrentine coast meets Herculaneum is a “soft and sinuous bay” providing an ideal harbour and port for inland settlements, as the river was navigableto seagoing ships. Strabo describes the port of Pompeii “accommodates a traffic in both imports and exports” at the crossroad of coastal routes.

Natural Features  Mount Vesuvius dominates the Plain of Campania and divides it into two regions: the large one to the north drained by the Volturno River, and the smaller one in the south traversed by the Sarno River.  Although still active, the mountain’s outline today is different from its ancient form for it has erupted more than thirty times since the devastating explosion in AD 79, changing the shape and dimensions of the volcano since.  The Greek historian Diodorus, writing in the 1st century BC, provides evidence that the early Greeks knew of the mountain’s active nature.  Greek geographer Strabo who lived from about 64 BC to 19 AD described the flanks of Vesuvius as fertile and beautiful in contrast to its summit in his Geography. o “As for the summit, a considerable part is flat, but all of it is unfruitful, and looks ash-coloured…”  Strabo’s account remains the first accurate description of the volcano in a dormant phase.  Other Greek and Roman writers such as Virgil and Suetonius were more interested in the mythological associations of the mountain with the realm of Vulcan, the Roman god of fire. Resources  Material spewed from volcano weathered into deep fertile soils, grey-black and rust-brown rich in phosphorus and potash that supported a variety of natural vegetation such as poplars, willows, alder, oak and beech.  Soil’s spongy nature retained enough of the winter rains producing an impressive array even during hot, rainless days of summer.  Slopes of Vesuvius in mid 1 AD were covered with vines. Superior grapes produced famous Vesuvian wine o Favoured by Pliny, showing superiority of Bacchus (god of wine) over Ceres (god of grain. He recorded that in Campania the vines “never stop growing”. o Virgil also mentions vineyards and Strabo refers to the entire area as “the wine bowl.” o Famous fresco in the House of Centenary verifies the importance of grapes and winemaking.  Rockier areas grew olives of high quality and oil for cooking as well as in perfume with flowers such as roses.  Fruit: peaches, apricots, lemons, cherries, plums, pears and figs. o Cato revered the figs of Herculaneum while Lucius Junius Columella spoke of the importance of cabbages and onions in the area.  At southern end of the Bay of Naples, flocks of sheep roamed the lush fields, providing Pompeii with wool for textile production.  Pumice stone from the volcano were exported and lava used in stone millstones for grinding grain and pressing olives. o Cato notes these presses were found in Pompeii and admits buying his own.  Material such as tufa (stone formed from compact volcanic ash) were used for building and other types used for paving roads.  Rich waters of the bay supported a thriving fishing and shellfish industry. Salt pans, formed where water washed into a depression near Herculaneum, and oily fish including tuna, mackerel, anchovies and moray eels provided the raw materials for the famous fish sauce garum for which the region was known. Others  With Campania’s temperate sea breezes, mild winters, mountainous background, magnificent panoramas, thermal pools, fertile soil and brilliant sunshine attracted many Romans.  Senators, wealthy businessmen and even members of the imperial family built imposing villas in and around Cumae, Misenum, Meapolis, Herculaneum, Stabiae and Pompeii transforming farmsteads into luxurious working villas.  “The handiwork of man blended into a landscape of grand style.” (Mau)  The Sarno Plain and adjacent coastline were dotted with bustling towns like Pompeii, Stabiae and Herculaneum as well as tranquil villages and farms engaged in an intensive form of agriculture. 1.2 Plans and streetscapes In the late 19th century Fiorelli introduced a system to locate houses and buildings.  Pompeii was divided into nine regions and each separate insula within a region was given a number, as well as each doorway in the insula. o Example: House of Julia Felix was II, 4, 2 located in region II, insula 4 doorway 2.  Herculaneum was treated similarly however it smaller size removed the need for regions.  The Romans had different names for different types of streets. o Via is a main highway from the city gate

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o Decumani were roads running from east to west o Cardines were roads running from north to south. o Shrines and water fountains were placed at these crossroads. Romans legislated that streets had to be a minimum of 5 metres wide. Most streets in Pompeii conformed however in Herculaneum streets ranged from 2.5 to 7 metres. Some streets were for pedestrian only. First impression is of a Pompeii is of an “interlocking jigsaw of large, medium and smaller houses.” (Wallace-Hadrill) o “Confused jumble… across the whole city, with no real attempt at commercial segregation…” Land use within Pompeii was not exclusively urban; including cultivated areas and open spaces where polyculture was practised (fruit trees, vines, vegetables growing together). o Remains of several commercial vineyards and a large orchard have been found.

Pompeii  Covering an area of approximately 66 hectares, although only two thirds have been excavated (~45 hectares)  Enclosed by a 3.2 km wall that followed the most defensive line of the natural landscape. Accessed by eight(?) arched gates, with five focused on roads to other towns. o Stabian Gate seems to be the oldest, descending to an outer moat. o Nolan Gate to the north was the most formidable, however soon the defensive walls lost their importance and some sections were demolished. o Other gates were: Herculanean, Vesuvian, Sarno, Capuan, Nucerian, Marine.  Streets laid out on a grid system, with decumani (main axial roads) crossed by cardini (minor roads) creating insulae (blocks). The four main areas were the Forum, the insulae fronting the Via Stabiana, Region VI and the eastern area. o Insulae were indicative of a Greek influence in the division of the town.  Pompeii’s main road, the Street of Abundance, or Via dell’ Abbondanza, was 8.5 metres wides from the Sarno Gate to the east, near the amphitheatres. o Other roads vary between 3.5 and 4.5 metres wide, but many were not wide enough for two-way traffic.  Roads paved with blocks of volcanic stone and polygonal blocks of basalt, have deep ruts attesting to the volume of wheeled traffic. Kerbing was made of basalt or tufa. o Vehicles for transportation of goods were quite solid judging from remains, generally having two wheels and pulled by oxen or mules.  Roads had raised stone blocks to provide pedestrian crossings designed to avoid citizens getting their feet wet. o Network of drains in the forum, however mostly drainage water flowed down streets to an outlet outside walls.  Public amenities include three public baths, an extensive exercise ground, the palaestra, amphitheatre, a forum and a

marketplace. Herculaneum  Harder to estimate as only four blocks have been completely unearthed: suggested from 12-22 hectares.  Modest walls (compared to Pompeii). Had a sea wall with large vaulted chambers for boats.  Well constructed footpaths, such as Decumanus Maximus. Herculaneum had no need of raised crossings as the town had an excellent drainage system. The absence of Pompeiian ruts show it had less traffic. o Subterranean sewers flowed beneath several roads. o One of the channels is only 60 centimetres wide, believing to have served the town’s main public baths and several houses.

Third is a large tunnel (3.6 m high) that ran under Cardo V street along an city block, linked to chutes that flowed from the latrines and kitchens of the homes above. Public facilities were grand and elegant considering the size of the town, including two baths, a theatre and public exercising ground. o

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2. The nature of sources and evidence 2.1 The range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human and animal remains Taking into consideration the survival or sources, Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried in different ways by the eruption of Vesuvius, resulting in different types of sources surviving.  Prevailing winds deposited a steady fall of lapilli (pumice stones) on Pompeii. After about 18 hours, an avalanche of hot ash and poisonous gases surged through the town, igniting destructive fires, burning everything that was combustible including timber and organic material. What remained was preserved under an ashfall.  Herculaneum experienced the same pyroclastic surge of gas and ash, but was followed by a flow of molten rock (which did not reach Pompeii) that covered the city to a depth of 20m. It slowly cooled and hardened, carbonising timber and other organic material. o Thus there is much greater evidence of timber structures and organics such as food, papyrus and skeletal remains. Streetscapes are more complete however much less has been excavated partly due to the depth of the volcanic deposit. Inscriptions and Wall Writings Pompeii ‘likened to one vast archive”; apart from formal inscriptions on stone, marble and bronze, most of the epigraphy (ancient inscriptions) “is of spontaneous character” painted/scratched on outer walls of both private and public structures. (Maiuri) Formal inscriptions include  Civic charters and regulations on bronze plates fixed to walls of public buildings  Dedications by wealthy citizens who believed providing buildings and festivals were their social duty to support the imperial cult. Their commemorative plaques can be found at prominent positions such as on public buildings, temples and statue pedestals around the forum. o Ex. A plaque in the forum honours Quinctius Valgus and Marcus Porcius who paid for the building of the amphitheatre.  Funerary inscriptions on tombs lining both sides of the road outside the Herculaneum Gate. From these, historians can learn  Who the prominent families were in various periods  Structure of government  Main political players  When buildings were constructed and renovated  Economic, political and social transformations in society Wall writings mostly refer to activities and events in the years immediately preceding the eruption of AD 79.  Public notices were written with a brush in red or black on freshly whitewashed walls.  Painted by professional scribes on outer walls of houses or buildings  whitewashed with lime by whitewasher, with message written at night by the light of an oil lamp, sometimes by the individual themselves.  Three types: o Electoral posters (programmata)urging votes towards a particular candidate. Slogans were not signed by the candidate, instead by family, friends, clients or guilds similar to a petition. o Programs announcing shows coming to the amphitheatre (edicta munerum) which were as important as electoral posters. Local magistrates (editores munerum) were responsible for all or part of the expenses of the gladiatorial spectacles. Programs included the magistrate’s name, political and religious positions, occasion and type of spectacle. o Notices for property sales and rentals. Advertisements were also painted on city walls. Ex. Julia Felix advertised part of her property. Graffiti were scratched into the surface of any available wall “with stylus, iron nail, wooden slinter or tooth pick”. (Grant).  Since Pompeii was at town dedicated to Venus, scattered throughout the city were graffiti concerning love, devotion, jealousy, bitterness and sexual frustration. o “Faithful Caesius loves M” and “Serena hates Isadore”  Greatest amount were related to gladiators, adored by Pompeian women. Most were concentrated near the arena (amphitheatre).  Most explicit graffiti were found in brothels, baths and public lavatory.  Businesses promoted their services and customers expressed their opinions and even calculated expenses.  Crude scratchings found on walls of taverns with comments of drinking and gambling. o “I won 855 sesterces at dice…  Random declarations offering political opinions, with angrier examples around the basilica in Pompeii. o “Samius to Cornelius: Go hang yourself”.  Any Pompeiian could share their own deepest feelings and jokes, gossip, contempt, and threats.

Wax Tablets and Rolls of Papyri  Two bundles of wooden tablets coated with wax reveal business activities of banker Caecilius Jucundus and two merchants.  Three more dossiers, referred to as the ‘Herculaneum Tablets’ throw light on the legal status of a freed slave, relationships between neighbours, family structure, quarrels over slaves and between landowners.  In remains of the Villa of the Papyri outside Herculaneum found a cache of 1800 fragile rolls of carbonised papyri (ancient documents written on material made from papyrus plant), turned out to be a library of writings of Epicurean philosophy. o A form of philosophy teaching that the highest good in life is pleasure.  Only until the implementation of the international Philodemus Project were the texts able to be deciphered due to their charred condition. Decorative Arts Frescoes (paintings on wet plaster)  Found in all levels of society, from elaborate mythological paintings in great reception rooms of the wealthy to simple lines of colour or geometric patterns in homes. Even walls of garden porticos became “veritable outdoor art galleries.” (Lessing, Varone)  Some houses and villas featured a style of megalography, (larger-than-life figures extending all over walls) such as the controversial series in the famous Villa of Mysteries outside Pompeii. Often they provoke debate as to their meaning. Mosaics  Pictures and designs done in thousands of tesserae or tiny chips of coloured glass, stone or pottery.  Floors of buildings featured a variety of geometric designs and figurative elements, generally in black and white. o Most famous coloured mosaic floor, in the House of the Faun, features a copy of a Hellensitic composition: Alexander the Great fighting Darius at the Battle of Issus.  Found also on walls, columns, nymphaeum (grotto, usually with a fountain dedicated to nymphs) and even vaulted roofs of baths.  Depicted aspects of daily life such as dancing, gambling and hairstyles as well as historical and mythological. Decorative garden and household furnishings  Sculptures in bronze and marble found in homes were copied from Classic and Hellenistic prototypes.  Gardens were filled with pedestals displaying herms (pillar with head of Hermes), masks and statues of Bacchus, Venus, Hercules, Eros and various woodland deities.  Wealthy families flaunted silver and fine ceramic ware, personal ornaments, glass vases and table settings at banquets/feasts as signs of social status.  Antique pieces are particularly sought after, such as the silver plate among treasures of the House of Menander. Among the silverware found were valuable cups embossed with scenes of Greek myths and traditional Hellenistic landscapes, as well as a gold jewellery with precious stones and a hoard of gold and silver coins. Popular Art and Objects of Everyday Life  Popular paintings mostly found on exterior walls or trade signs cover the whole range of human activities such as o Scenes of different phases in the production of wool from the walls of Pompeii’s largest textile workshop o Fulling process and the making of perfume and felt o Tavern life o Religious processions o Bustle of the forum  Ordinariness of objects found are valuable in building a picture of daily life o Pots on a kitchen stove o Wooden furniture such as a cradle and clothes press o Household shrines o Matting and ropes o Fisherman’s net o Scorched cloth and papyrus  In Herculaneum, extreme temperatures of the first two surges carbonised objects made of wood, and not only did many houses retained their timber upper storeys, staircases and balconies, pieces of furniture survived in carbonised form. Pompeii was not exposed to the same extremities and thus did not c...