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notes from before test 1...

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Week 1: The Beginning People who influenced romans at the beginning: The Etruscans - Pre-Roman Italy (before Rome was founded). Different tribes (especially northern Italy): Terramara, Apennine, Urnfield cultures. Different customs, goods (pottery). Came from southern Europe to establish themselves in northern Italy. - By 1000 BCE, Villanovan culture appears. Also lived in northern Italy. - By 8th century, Etruscans appear. - Etruscans were very wealthy, acquired luxury goods, had great art (pottery, sculplture, painting), and even had writing. Advanced civilization. - Based in Tuscany. - By the 1st century, they disappeared, being absorbed by Rome. - How did they get all of their wealth? They were in an area of great natural resources: fertile land, metal resouces (copper, tin, lead, iron). They began trading with Greeks. Greeks gave them luxury goods that they got from the East. - Origins: Native Italian population, OR that they came from Asia Minor (western turkey). Married Villanovans (locals).  people came from the east, married locals, and became estruscans. - But 2) DNA suggests otherwise Important for showing different results from different types of evidence! - Sources (how do we know about them): Greek or Roman - Etrsucans were the first people in Italy to build cities. Proved they were highly advanced. Cities built on hilltops (useful as a means of protection – you can see down below), and were fortified (yet another proof that they needed protection from their enemies), and used grid patterns (NSWE). By the 6th century, they were building temples (honoring their deities). At first they were square, but then changed to imitate the Greek style temples. - 6th century: height of Etruscans civilization. They were ruling most of Italy. Down from Bay of Naples. - North: Etrsucans, South: Greeks (other major power in Italy). From Bay of Naples south - Tombs were built out of rock. They kept what was important – pottery, weapons. Ashes placed into urns - Etruscan cities: Veii, aere, Tarquinii, Vulci (south of Etruria). Chiusi (north) - Cities more like city-states, so all independent - At first had kings, but by late 6th century, aristocrats ruled. - Etruscans never thought of themselves as one enlighted people, they were all independent, but united in religion. Priests were very important. They had power over aristocrats, and could control policy. - Gods scary! Needed to know their will since they controlled everything (natural - phenomena, etc.) - Houses were flimsy, but tombs were built to last. - Gods: Tinia = Zeus = Jupiter - Uni = Hera = Juno

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Menerva = Athena = Minerva Termes = Hermes = Mercury Turan = Aphrodite = Venus Symposium: all male drinking party

Other major group in Italy: Greeks -

Colonized from Bay of Naples south, including Sicily. Due to problems, Greeks wanted to leave Greece in search of new territory. South Italy thus became Magna Graecia First colonies = Pithecusae, Cumae Greatest colony of all was Syracuse (in Sicily)

The Beginnings of Rome How do we know about Roman History?

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1. Archaeology (helps to supplement what authors tell us) 2. Ancient sources: Livy: 59 BCE – 17 CE or BCE – 12 CE: Books from the foundation of the city Dynosius: c.30 BCE : Roman Antiquities Strabo: 64/3 BCE – 21 CE : Geography

Main Topics of Early Roman History: 1. Political Changes 2. Military Conquests (Rome’s expansion beyond Rome and beyond Italy) 3. Struggle of the Orders (struggle of lower classes to get more rights) 753 BCE : When Romans think they are founded. Calendar begins here Romulus and Remus: mythical foundation of Rome. Romulus kills twin brother Remus and found Rome. Romulus might be an Etruscan name. Amulius drives out brother Numitor, grandsons thrown into Tiber. Aeneas (Trojan) ultimate founder of Roman people Remus jumped over Romulus’s walls – sign of disrespect insinuating Romulus’ walls aren’t high enough.

Week 2: Early Rome Continue with early political organization of Rome Servian Constitution Conquest of Italy Struggle of the Orders Organization of the Republic Start of the Punic Wars

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Livy is an important source: talks about society, government, how rome developed Archaeology is also important: information about their graves, cremations, then inhumations c. 1200; earliest graves cremations, then inhumations,... Rome collection of villages, then merge and really see city by c. 625 Monarchy. 7 kings in total, and the last one was Tarquinius Superbus, deposed c.509. About 250 years they had kings. Did monarchy actually exist? Think Rex.

Social and Political Organization in Rome during Monarchy -

Divided into 3 tribes (kinship). Each tribe divided into 10 subdivisions (curiae). 30 curiae in total. 1) Curiae met at the Assembly (comitia curiata). Except women and children. 2) Senate: 300 members, 3 x 100 (100 members from each tribe). Elders chosen by the King, in office for life, all aristocrats. Terms Sene (old men) Patres (fathers), therefore Patricians. Noble, upper elite class of Rome. o They were council of the King. Great power and prestige. o Interrex: when the King died, Senate would choose Interrex (between the king), which is a caretaker before the new king took over. Enabled the romans to make sure whoever became king, was well suited for the job (not necessarily the oldest son). Very good safeguard. Made sure whoever got the job was qualified for the position as king. 3) King: chief military, executive and administrative power, office for life. o Numa Pompilius o Tarquinius Superbus.

Therefore, 1) King, 2) Senate, 3) Assembly Dates: BCE count towards 0, AD and after count up ->753= 8th century 6th king: Servius Tilius – Servian Constitution He changed the way tribes were made up: -

to be in a tribe depending on wealth, instead of family. 3 to 10, later to 21, then 35

Precedent? Why the change? Think Solan (greek history). Who has power in Rome. He was trying to make sure the wealthier you are, the more power you have in Rome. -

Therefore, he created a new assembly: Comitia Centuriata (Centuriate Assembly) 193 centuries (98 – richer, and 95 – poorer people). Richer centuries also vote first. o Rigged in favour of the rich

During this period, they are also fighting wars against other countries (like Italy), and the richer people contribute the most to these wars. Therefore, they should have more say in politics of Rome Plutocracy: rule of the wealthy. Elected chief magistrates, power to declare war Plebeians: majority, no say o

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History of Rome 2 pronged: 1) Conquest of Italy 2) Struggle of plebs to gain more rights

Rome founded in 753 – 509 (Kings/Servian Constitution) 500 – 265 (Conquest of Italy/Struggle of the Orders)

Conquests 

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Etruscans: c. 500 – 400... Latin League o Romans formed alliance with latins o Romans were able to conquer each estruscan cities one by one (because they were divided) Gauls (Celts): c.387 sacked Rome. o Peace by 331 Samnites c.343 – 290. o Fought “dirty”. Use of ambushes. Romans were not used to it, but then adapted to enable them to defeat the Samnites. Greeks: c.281-265. o Pyrrhus (280-275). He brought elephants, which surprised the Romans. Battles were very costly, he lost a lot of men. “I can’t afford to win any more battles”. He won the war, but at a very great human cost. Once he left, the Romans had an easier time conquering. Carthage

Reasons for their success 1) Geography (split in the enemies into north and south) 2) Adaptable o Adapted their methods of warfare. Were not stuck in their ways – were able to change when they saw that change was needed. 3) Methods: a) Roads b) Colonies (helped when they were conquering Italy – spread their ways and ideas)

c) Alliances (I help you, you help me. Offer romans some soldiers, they will offer some fruits of their conquests). After they conquer anyone, they offer an alliance. 4) Unity 5) Struggle of the Orders Patricians vs Plebeians Plebs are fed up: contributions in wars, problems with the government -

Ager Publicus (public land). Land was rented to roman citizens to farm. Because of rent, people needed money to rent, so it favoured patricians and not plebeians. Government: the government system was unfair for them, caused unhappiness 1) Magistracies controlled by patricians 2) Magistrates too powerful 3) Role of assemblies

The Republic (509) (no more King, long live the Republic) -

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2 consuls (instead of 1 king): highest officials in the state. Elected by Centuriate Assembly (which is rigged in favor of the patricians). Both consuls are patricians. o Imperium (military term that means that they have power of life and death over all of the citizens of Rome) o Main role at first was generals (commanded half army each) o Each consul had power of veto over the other one o 1 year term Military (consular) tribunes: military officers with consular powers o Until 366 only – between 3 and 6 tribunes o 1 year term Dictators o For emergencies only o 6 month term o Appointed by consuls and Senate o Normally patricians Senate: o Advised magistrates o Appointed by consuls are first o Office for life o Wealth requirement o Only body with any continuity o Prestige since they knew how to rule o Advisory, counsel, later made decisions about religion, finances, war, etc. Centuriate Assembly: o Elected top magistrates o Passed laws. However in reality, the senate must approve the laws before it goes through to the assembly. o So, plebeians in majority but no power.

Two main causes of plebeian unhappiness 1) Conquest of italy-plebeians fought but got none of the rewards (ager publicus) 2) Whole government system gave power only to patricians Italiens were mad because they fought w romans but weren’t getting treated fairly-land was given to roman patriciens, italien plebians couldn’t afford it(see photo on phone)

The Struggle -

Because romans needed plebeians for wars, they granted them concessions. 1) Lex Valeria: created some time in the early Republic Consular imperium meant power of life and death over citizens o Gave right to appeal the death sentence to the Centuriate Assembly o Meant less power for consuls ->meant to appease the italien plebians mad about the land o 2) Plebeian Tribunes, c. 495 o Plebs fed up – threatened to leave Rome o State gave in, so they gave plebeians the right to have tribunes that looked after plebeian interests o Because they were elected by plebeians, they were not real magistrates. o They had the power of veto over legislation o Their bodies were sacred: if any harm were made to these tribunes, mobs could lynch the culprit. Meant to prevent any harm to the tribunes 3) Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Council), 494 o Elected tribunes (by plebs) o Passed own measures (plebiscites) o The Senate was not bound by them but by not accepting them, they would be antagonizing the plebeians o Senate would sometimes accept their laws to placate the masses (if the plebs were super angry) 4) Laws of the 12 Tables, 449 o Laws were now written up and put up in Forum 5) Valerian-Horatian Laws, 449 o Resolutions of Plebeian Council valid if Senate agreed. Plebeian could make laws if Senate approved them 6) Comitia Tributa (Tribal Assembly), c.447 o Based on geographical tribes o Each tribe cross-section of people, therefore more equality (so couldn’t be rigged in favour of one group, the most democratic future of roman republic) o 35 tribes, voting done by the tribe o Most democratic system by far o Elected lower magistrates

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o Later became chief legislative body in state o Now there’s Centuriate Assembly, and Tribal Assembly Not expected to memorise all the laws, just know roughly what they’re about and know law of 12 tables and licinian sextian law

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7) The Magistracies (all magistrates were unpaid positions) Impossible for plebeians to get elected-> In order to run for office you need to be wealthy because you can’t work while you’re consuls o Consuls – 2 at first, more later. Elected by the Centuriate assembly. Patricians only could become consuls. o Quaestors(began in early republic) – 2 members, later 4. Chosen by consuls, later (by mid 5th cnetruy) elected by the Tribal Assembly. Helped consuls with finances and justice. o Aediles – 4 members: 2 elected by Plebeian Assembly and 2 by Tribal Assembly. Took care of public works, policing, grain supply, etc. 8) Canuleian Marriage Law: 445 o Allowed plebeians and patricians to marry 9) Censor: 444 o Took census (used to determine taxes etc) o Chose senators (could remove them as well) o Had duty to ensure senators behaved appropriately o Controlled finances o Elected by the centuriated assembly (the assembly that controls the most powerful offfices) o 2 censors, election every 5 years for an 18 month term o Former consuls (so former senators become consuls who then can become censors who are supposed to control the senators-sketchy business) o Watched over senate 10) Licinian-Sextian Laws: 367-366 The plebs went to fight in wars, when they came back their farm land was unmaintained/ruined so they had to borrow money from the patricans, they then became severely in debt -this law was meant to mitigate this

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Readjusted debts: made it easier for plebs to pay back loans.  Lowered interest rates, amongst other methods Changed Ager Publicus: only certain amount of acres allowed per person. Any extra went back to the state. This freed up more land, and prevented the wealthy from owning very large estates controlled by few people.  However, price of land did not change, so it did not help plebeians have more ownership of land Also means Consulship open to plebs: plebs could not be a consul, and therefore control things like anybody else

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However the voting is still done at the centuriated assembly, where patricians still ruled. Biased towards patricians Priesthoods: 5 of 10 priests could be plebeian. , it then became mandatory that at least 5-10 priest were pleb (priests were considered powerful back then)

11) Praetors: 367 o At first 1, then more later o Junior consuls with imperium (2nd most powerful magistracy in Rome) o Also elected by the centuriated assembly o Probably established to counter growing power of plebs o Took over some of civil powers of consuls o On taking over, they issued their edicts on philosophy of law o Ran Rome in absence of consuls. 12) The Censorship open to plebeians by 351. Plebs now had a role in who can be in the senate 13) By 342, 1 of 1 consuls had to be plebeian, also 1 of 2 censors 14) By 337, praetorship open to plebeians 15) By 300, all religious posts open to plebeians 16) By 300, senators had to have held magistracy before they were eligible to enter the Senate. o Things seem all fine and well. However, in order to get laws passed, the Senate had to approve them. The plebeians felt like none of their laws would pass, so they threatened to leave Rome, so they passed another law 17) Lex Hortensia: c.287: all laws of plebeian assembly valid without needing senate’s approval o This law marks officially the end of the Struggle of the Orders. However, the patricians had no intention of enforcing these laws. So there were still problems. Imagine this: a poor plebeian goes to a rich patrician to ask for help. I need help, we are starving, can you help? Patrician agrees to help plebeian. (client-patron system). Client is plebeian, patron is patrician. On one condition: political allegiance. o Patron will help client in return for a vote o Bribery and corruption rampant o Society has become an oligarchy: rich patricians, plebeian landowners who had been consuls

The Punic War Rome vs Carthage The war revolved over the city Messana ( because of its geographic location) -

Messana (at the north tip of sicily, close to italy). Was too close to Italy for the Romans to feel confident. Phoenicians (founded Carthadge). o Why is it called the Punic war? Roman name for Phoenicians = poeni, adj = punicus, hence Punic

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Three Punic wars that they fought

The carthagens controlled sicily, carthage all the red area -

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Mamertines (of Campania) take over Messana (reason doesn’t matter). Came from Southern Italy. Messana not happy. o Syracuse gets involved. Now, too many people involved o Messana then asks Carthage to help out, and oust Syracuse o Meanwhile, Mamertines ask Rome to help o Messana an especially important city for its strategic location  Romans and Carthages agree to get involved Cathages want messana because it’s close to itlay, rome doesn’t want carthage to have it because it’s too close to Italy

Causes of the First Punic War (264-241) 1) 2) 3) 4) -

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Rome afraid of Carthage – thought they might invade Italy Felt obliged to protect Greek cities in Sicily War is proftitable – desire for loot. Glory for Roman generals Rome: land power / Carthaginians: sea power (war ships) o One day, a Carthaginian ship landed on Roman’s beach, and so they copied it. They built a hundred ships in 60 days. o They made them better: they added a corvus: a wooden plank to connect to an opposing ship so that they can cross the ship and fight them on the opponent’s ship, as if they were fighting on land. Battles were more or less equal, until Battle of Lilybaeum (241): off the north west cost of Sicily. The battle to end it all. Both sides suffered extreme casualties and financial costs. However Carthage did in fact give up. Peace terms: 1) Carthage gives up claim to Sicily – becomes Rome’s first province 2) Carthage pays money to Rome 3) Carthage gives back its Prisoners-of-Wars War mercenaries needed to be paid, but Carthage could not pay them. After 241, they revolted By 238, mercenaries in Sardinia got Rome to help against Carthage Carthage then gave up claims to both Sardinia and Corsica So Sicily becomes Romes 1st province, Sardinia-Corsica become Rome’s 2nd province o What to do with these new territories? How to run them/ incorporate them into the Roman state?

How did Romans deal with these new provinces? -

They needed 2 new magistrates to become governors of these provinces o By 227, 2 new praetors elected by Centuriate Assembly o These governors had imperium.  People of these provinces did not have the power of appeal o Also had clerks, quaestors to help run provinces.

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Governors very powerful

Second Punic War: 218 - 201 -

Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Nepos, c. 110 BCE – c. BCE Livy, 59 BCE – 17 CE or 64 BCE – 12 CE (21.4) Hannibal: was seen lying on bare ground with the common soliders: the first to attack, the last to leave the field. Great solider of unmatched strength. Inhuman cruelty, a total disregard of truth, honour and religion, and a sanctity of an oath.

Underlying causes of the 2nd punic war       

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Carthagens purposely attacked saguntum provoking rome into war (since rome had to protect saguntum Livy speaking of Hannibal :”Reckless, always the first to attack and last to leave the field” Hannibal is great leader, son of military person, great war strategist Hannibal brings the carthagian army across the alps? On the ninth day they reached the summit Hannibal lost 14000 men out 40k (from falling off mountain but also fighting natives)and 2/3 of elephants Carthagians began winning the war—main winning point was the elephants, also they didn’t fight in the traditional roman style-they used non traditional technique (see 4 the battle of cannae pic)

Hannibal wanted revenge, to avenge the humiliation of losing the first war Romans got drawn into war, but were afraid of Carthage’s growing power Still wanted glory and loot Sagun...