Complete Anthropology 101D notes PDF

Preview

Summary

This file contains complete notes for Anthropology 101D. Important terms are bolded, and lectures are separated by paragraphs. I took this class in Fall of 2015 with Michael Needley and got an A. ...

Description

Anthropology is the study of humans, both in the past and the present. It’s the study of human cultural and biological variation and evolution. It is a holistic science, meaning it involves an all inclusive perspective. It incompeses politics, economics, religion, human biology etc. These are not isolated knowledges; they all interweave with one another. We all look at the differences between people and cultures, but anthropology does this in a systematic, scientific way. It aims to help us make generalized statements about the human system/experience. Anthropology uses a comparative approach (known as comparativism), comparing people in area A to people in area B, why are they different, how are they similar ect. There are four subfield of anthropology; Physical (or Biological) anthropology, which looks at the functional morphology, like skeletons or body structure. Evolutionary anthropology, which specializes in biological evolution of humans is a subgroup of this field. Primatology is likewise a subfield of physical anthropology, and it looks at the behavior of primates, and compares it to the behavior of modern humans. Archaeology focuses on past human lives by using material remains. They ask what happened, when did it happen, and why did it happen? Historic archeology involves the use of material remains, as well as examining writings, which dates back roughly 5000 years. We don’t have written records of native Americans and other societies, however. Archaeologists often look through the trash of ancient people, as to learn more about their culture. What you throw out in the trash can tell you about the type of person you are (eg if you throw out an empty ramon package, you’re likely a student) Linguistics is the study of language. It studies the sounds, meaning and structure of languages and how are they similar/different. It also looks at non-spoken aspects of communication such as proximity, body language, eye contact etc. Social/cultural anthropology is the study of living societies, both local and exotic. It looks at human diversity and tries to explain diversity. Anthropologists rely on observations; real cases, rather than hypotheticals. Many cultures are based around genetic kinship, meaning only biological relatives live together, or even associate with one another. One of the ways western societies get past these social borders are through religion; members of the same religion often think of themselves as kin. Anthropologists utilize participant observation, because they don’t want their own presence to affect the way people behave. That’s why anthropologists often live in one foreign culture for a few years at a time, to earn the trust of the locals, and to talk to many people in the culture. Ethnography is a written description or study of a particular people. Ethnography consists of comparisons between different cultures, as to create general statements about human behavior. Cultural relativism is the idea that other ways of acting and values are as valid as our own. Ethnocentrism is the view that your particular culture/race is superior to those of other cultures Anthropologists should appreciate and understand differences among cultures, rather than think other cultures are “worse”, simply because they’re different.

Contributions of Anthropology; -standardized sizes for clothing (began during WW2 with standardised military uniform) -the way in which businesses is conducted (some behaviors that are odd in one culture are thought of as normal in other cultures) -identifying changing aspects of our own culture -archaeological methods are used in crime scene investigations -preserves our cultural heritage -addresses social problems -brings to light gender differences in regard to speech As humans, we are mammals, social animals, adapted to many habitats, large brained etc. Anthropologists struggle to find a good definition of “culture”. They focus on patterned behaviors, since ideas are more difficult to study, especially when behaviors contradict ideas. Culture can be defined as a system of behaviors that’s learned from older members of society. However, this approach has been criticized for being overly materialistic, since it doesn’t go into the reasons behind our behaviors. Ultimately, culture is a shared and negotiated system of meaning, with many interrelated parts. Members of a culture share and determine meaning. Culture is informed by knowledge, which is in turn gained by learning and experience; it’s not genetic. It’s put into practice by interpreting experience and generating behavior. Behavior by itself isn’t meaningful; we give it meaning through culture, which is determined by the context in which it occurs. The process of acquiring a culture is called enculturation. Culture is not a simple, static, single thing but it is complex, diverse, and dynamic Anthropology and Science Science is based on two fundamental steps; observation and systematic explanation of observations. A key component of science is testability. Anthropologists want to take observations of human behavior and systemize them in order in understand cultures. We start with a hypothesis; a tentative explanation for the relationship between certain phenomena. Once a hypothesis has been accepted, we call it theory. Unlike other scientific fields, anthropology is often bound by our own culture when trying to explain other cultures. Anthropological experiments differ from lab experiments in that they are based off observation, so it’s hard to repeat them. Studying other cultures can be made even more difficult due to our own cultural propaganda. The notion of “primitive vs civilized” adds to this issue of eurocentrism. Evolutionary Theory Humans are omnivores, we are active in the day, we have to eat, drink, and eliminate waste, we have to reproduce to prolong our species etc. We are a species, and as such we represent an actual or potentially interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.

Evolution is simply a change in a population of organisms over time. In 1650 Bishop Ussher determined earth was created in 4004 BC on October 23rd. During this time, people believed in the fixity of species, meaning they believed species don’t change over time. A man by the name of Linnaeus created a system of classification (taxonomy). Though he didn’t believe in evolution personally, his system supports the notion of species being connected and changing. George Cuvier was a catastrophist, meaning he believed fossils are remains of lifeforms that died out during great disasters, like the great flood of Neo’s time, which was the last of these catastrophes. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck first recognized that plants and animals adapt to the local environment, helping them to survive. He believed organisms change along with the environment. He also thought evolution was progressive (organisms always get more complex), and he thought animals never go extinct. His mechanism of change is known as the inheritance of acquired characteristics; new traits are passed on to animals’ offspring. One issue with this viewpoint is that animals don’t have the ability to control their characteristics. Beginning in the early 19th century natural scientists perfected the theory of evolution, mainly thanks to the work of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. They both questioned the fixity of species, and they noted that species exhibit variation. Their key contribution to evolutionary biology was the theory of natural selection. They argued that variation is inherent in the organism, so that those that are best adapted to their environment are more likely to reproduce, and thus pass on those traits. They realized that evolution is not necessarily progressive, and variation is random; it can’t be controlled by the individual. In summary, there is competition between organisms due to the fact that there is a limited amount of food, and variation occurs within species. Successful variations can lead to new species over long periods of time. Darwin and Wallace, however, did not recognize genetics as the source of variation. Genetics and Sources of Variation During Darwin's time people thought that inheritance worked through blending, but this is not always the case. For example, the offspring of a man with brown eyes and a woman with blue eyes doesn’t have a fix of these colors. There are three levels of genetics; molecular genetics (level of the DNA), mendelian level (how traits are passed on), and population genetics (macro and microevolution) The molecular level of genetics focuses on genes; chemical code for the production of a protein. Each gene on a DNA strand contains instructions for making a protein. Chromosomes are long paired strands of DNA. Humans have 23 of these pairs. RNA carries information to make protein out of DNA in nucleus. Mendelian genetics deals with how genes are distributed among offspring. The locus is the position of the gene on the chromosome. Alleles are variations in the forms of the genes at each locus. An allele pair is called the genotype. Two of the same alleles- homozygous, two different alleles- heterozygous. The expression (ie physical appearance) of the genotype is the phenotype.

Some alleles are recessive (for example blood type O), while others are dominant (for example blood type A or B). Sources of Variation- Microevolution We get variation thanks to mutations; random mistakes that occur in the genetic code. Mutations by themselves don’t result in a change in allele frequency. genetic drift (founder effect) is a random change in gene frequency from one generation to the next. These changes are random, so they aren’t responses to changes in environment. Genetic drift generally occur in small populations. Gene flow involves the movement of genes from one population to another population. genetic drift tends to isolate populations, while gene flow makes different populations more similar. Natural selection filters genetic variation, but it doesn’t create new variation. It isn’t random, but rather it works depending on which traits are advantageous. The Primates We study primates because doing so helps us define what it means to be human, by comparing and contrasting our physical traits, behaviors etc. Primitive traits reflect an ancestral condition; not diagnostic of a later lineage. 2 common primitive traits are 1) 5 digits and 2) unspecialized teeth Derived traits are characteristics that reflect a specific evolutionary line. There are 7 major derived traits in primates; 1) grasping hands and feet, 2) vision is the dominant sense, 3) hands are exploratory organs, 4) few offspring with long period of dependency, 5) large brains relative to body size, 6) long life spans, 7) live in social groups The arboreal hypothesis explains these characteristics by arguing primates adapted to arboreal environments (ie in the trees) . The visual predation hypothesis- primates were primarily insect catching animals in the forest undergrowth, and not in the trees A third hypothesis argues that these traits are advantages for finding fruits and berries Primate characteristics Primates are all visual creatures; we rely on sight, see in color, have stereoscopic vision, and have bony eye sockets. Due to our reliance on sight, our other senses are impaired. Primates have similar teeth and diets, with a “2-1-2-3” dental pattern, meaning we have 2 incisors, 1 canine, 3 premolars, and 3 molars on each side of our mouths. Primate tend to be omnivores, which explains our teeth structure. Most mammals are quadrupeds (they move on all fours), including most primates. Brachiation is the swinging locomotion that many primates use to move about while in the trees. Apes can be distinguished from monkeys in that they don’t have a tail. Only new world monkeys use their tails to grip things. Hominids walk on two legs, unlike other primates. Primates have quite a lot of flexibility in their hands (and to some extent in their feet), which is

known as a prehensile grip. We have a “power grip” to clench things, and we can use opposable thumbs for more delicate movements. The retention of clavicle refers to the fact that we have collar bones, which enhances the mobility of the shoulder joint. Primates also have nails instead of claws. Primates generally produce one offspring at a time, and they take direct care of the young. It takes a long period of time for the young to develop; this is known as a long period of postnatal dependency. Primates are also intelligent animals, since we have large brains, allowing us to acquire, store, and process information. Primates are social creatures that recognize statues (ie dominance hierarchy). There are strong bonds between individuals, which are maintained through communication. Humans use a complex verbal language, while other primates use signs, signals, and touch. Human variation As all species, humans show variation among their members. Species adapted to a narrow range of environmental constraints are considered specialized. Humans are a generalized species known as polytypic, meaning we are species composed of local populations that differ from one another with regard to certain physical traits. Polymorphisms are an especially varied species. The basis of racial categories are skin color, face shape, nose shape, hair color, hair type, eye color etc. Race is often used for cultural attributes as well. The biological definition of race is: a group of populations that share some biological characteristics and these populations differ from other groups of populations with regard to these characteristics. There are several problems with racial classifications in regard to humans, such as the fact that there’s no agreement on the number of races. The physical variations are continuous whereas racial categories are discrete. This continuum in variation of a phenotype is known as a cline. There are differences between people, but these don’t have any biological (racial) meaning. In order to develop subspecies for humans, we would need; long-term isolation, different environments promoting adaptive selection in different directions, variation between populations, and a long period of time. Problems with these assumptions are that; there is no evidence for long-term isolation; gene flow is the norm. Culture is the primary way of adapting; using culture long before modern humans arrived. In many ways, culture has buffered biological adaptation. For example, if it’s cold, we make coats, instead of growing more hair. Genetics also indicated that we are not a varied species. Most of the variation (94%) is found within “racial” groups and only 6% occurs between “racial” groups. We might have had enough time for this to occur, but time is not a cause of variation; it’s just a means of measuring change. Human Evolution- Bipedal Origins In 1912 the a fossil known as the Piltdown Man was discovered. It had a human skull with an orangutan jaw, and it was given the scientific name eoanthropus dawsonii. It was later discovered to be a hoax. Anthropologists at this time believed that a large brain would be the

first trait of humanness. In 1925 a man be the name of Raymond Dart found a fossil we called the Taung Baby, or the Australopithecus africanus. It had a 400cc (as compared with 1100-1200 for modern humans) cranial capacity, smaller teeth than apes, and its foramen magnum indicated bipedalism. In 1976 Mary Leakey found footprints in an ash layer in Laetoli that date to 3.7 million years ago. This tells us that the first human feature, evolutionarily speaking, isn’t brain size but rather bipedalism. Bipeds aren’t as fast or as stable when they walk as quadrupeds. The advantages of bipedalism are that it frees up our hands, it’s more efficient, it makes us taller, thus giving us a better view. Factors that led to bipedalism are; -environmental change from forest to open woodland and savanna. This makes early hominids travel larger distances to find food, so the ability to carry food or children is advantages. Standing upright also helped early hominids see danger easier. -the role of meat in hominid diets. It’s argued that our early ancestors were scavengers, rather than hunters; they would find kills and take parts. Bipedalism allows efficient transportation, see danger, carry scavenged food. -the role of temperature regulation; standing up reduces solar radiation -the ability to run long distances. There are different muscle attachments in humans, that make it more efficient to move for long periods of time. -the provisioning hypothesis; females take more time to care for the young, so males provide food for females and offspring. This requires them to travel far and carry resources. The Foramen magnum is the hole in the base of the skull through which the spinal cord passes.

Early Hominins Hominin fossils found between 7-4.2 MYA are called paranthropus. Examples of these fossils include sahelanthropus (7-6 MYA) and orrorin tugenensis (6.2-5.6 MYA) There’s a gap in the fossil record until about 4 MYA, at which point we found remains of a bipedal hominids with large projecting canines (ape-like trait), called the ardipithecus ramidus. Most of the early hominids have been thought to have evolved in open grasslands, but this particular hominid appears to have lived in a woodland environment. There’s still debate over how this species fits into the homo genus. The earliest australopithecus dates back to 4.2-3.9 MYA, which is known as the australopithecus anamensis. It was found in West Africa, and its features include large canines, parallel tooth rows, and a chin. Many people think this is our first distinct ancestor. The australopithecus afarensis (3.9-2.9 MYA) had a cranial capacity of 440cc, a projecting face, pointed canines, diastema, possible sagittal crest (chewing muscles), long arms, curved toes for climbing, and an intermediate shape of dental arcade. The best known australopithecus afarensis is Lucy, largely because this is the most complete skeleton (40%) that we have found from this time. Thanks to Lucy and and the other 14 fossils found together we that know that this species exhibited sexual dimorphism (there are noticeable differences between males and females). Later fossils (those dating back after 3 MYA) include the australopithecus africanus (3.2-2.3

MYA)have flatter faces, no sagittal crest, rounder dental arcade, no diastema. It’s not yet known is this species an ancestor related to the Homo line. The paranthropus aethiopicus (aka the black skull) is a fossil found in East Africa that dates back to 2.5-2.2 MYA. It actually has a smaller cranial capacity (410cc)than some older homins. The paranthropus robustus (2.5-1.0 MYA, South Africa) had a cranial capacity of 520cc, and it had much larger chewing muscles like P. aethiopicus (also a sagittal crest) The paranthropus boisei (2.5-1.4 MYA, East Africa) is a hyper robust species, found in 1960 by the Leakeys. It had a cranial capacity of 545 cc. We don’t know exactly which of these species are our ancestors, but they likely aren’t the paranthropus, since these became for specialized. It’s argued that the first toolmakers are the Homo Habilis, dating back to 2.4-1.4 MYA, which was found by Leakeys. Homo Habilis is different from other early hominids in that they are less prognathic, they have a more rounded cranium, a larger cranial capacity (630cc), and a slight forehead. The Early Lower Paleolithic The first evidence of an archaeological record were the remains of ancient Oldowan culture that were found at Olduvai Gorge. The tools found here are dated to between 2.5 to 2.6 MYA. Oldowan tool making is a very simple industry (stone flakes, core tools, and cores). It involved the hard-hammer technique- striking core with another rock. The Oldowan chopper is a blunt tool consisting of a rock that’s chipped away at one side. These tools tend to be very generalized (serve multiple tasks), and expedient (made only when needed), in contrast to curated tools (made in advance of use). One important behavioral development that distinguishes the Oldowan culture from chimpanzees is the fact that many of the materials were brought from up to 10km away. The Oldowan tools probably weren't big game hunters, but rather “tool-assi...