Construction of marine and offshore structures PDF

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q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC To the great pioneers in Marine and Offshore Construction who were undeterred by violent storms and massive ice. q 2007 by Taylor &...

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q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

To the great pioneers in Marine and Offshore Construction who were undeterred by violent storms and massive ice.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface

This third editon has been intensively augmented and revised to include the latest developments in this rapidly expanding field. The intensified search for oil and gas, the catastrophic flooding of coastal regions and the demands for transportation, bridges, submerged tunnels and waterways have led to the continuing innovation of new technology which is now available for use on more conventional projects as well as those at the frontiers. This text is intended as a guide and reference for practicing engineers and constructors for use in the marine environment. It is also intended as a text for graduate engineering students interested in this highly challenging endeavour.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Acknowledgments

I wish to acknowledge the help of many members of our company, Ben C. Gerwick, Inc. making available information on the current construction of marine and offshore projects, also the willing responses to my queries from other sources in the industry. I would like to thank my administrative assistant, Michelle Yu, for her word-processing of the manuscript.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Author

Ben C. Gerwick, Jr. is the author of Construction of Prestressed Concrete, first, second, and third editions, and the first and second editions of Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures. He was born in Berkeley, California, in 1919. He received his B.S. in civil engineering from the University of California at Berkeley in 1940. He joined the U.S. Navy the same year and served until 1946. He was assigned as commanding officer of the USS Scania (AK 40) in 1945. He has worked in marine and offshore construction, or taught about it, for most of the time since his discharge from the navy. He worked in Marine Construction from 1946 to 1967 and from 1967 to 1971 in Offshore Construction, ending as President of Ben C. Gerwick, Inc., and Manager of Offshore Construction for Santa Fe International. From 1971 to 1989, he served as Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, the National Academy of Construction, and an honorary member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, which awarded him their Outstanding Engineering Lifetime Achievement Award in 2002. He has been named a fellow of the International Association of Structural and Bridge Engineers and has served as president of the International Federation of Prestressing. He was awarded the Berkeley Fellow Medal in 1989.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents

Introduction 0.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 0.2 Geography ............................................................................................................................ 0.3 Ecological Environment ..................................................................................................... 0.4 Legal Jurisdiction................................................................................................................. 0.5 Offshore Construction Relationships and Sequences.................................................... 0.6 Typical Marine Structures and Contracts........................................................................ 0.7 Interaction of Design and Construction ..........................................................................

1 3 4 4 5 8 9

Chapter 1

Physical Environmental Aspects of Marine and Offshore Construction General ................................................................................................................................ Distances and Depths ....................................................................................................... Hydrostatic Pressure and Buoyancy .............................................................................. Temperature ....................................................................................................................... Seawater and Sea–Air Interface Chemistry .................................................................. 1.5.1 Marine Organisms ................................................................................................ Currents .............................................................................................................................. Waves and Swells .............................................................................................................. Winds and Storms ............................................................................................................. Tides and Storm Surges.................................................................................................... Rain, Snow, Fog, Spray, Atmospheric Icing, and Lightning ...................................... Sea Ice and Icebergs .......................................................................................................... Seismicity, Seaquakes, and Tsunamis............................................................................. Floods .................................................................................................................................. Scour .................................................................................................................................... Siltation and Bed Loads ................................................................................................... Sabotage and Terrorism.................................................................................................... Ship Traffic .......................................................................................................................... Fire and Smoke .................................................................................................................. Accidental Events .............................................................................................................. Global Warming.................................................................................................................

15 15 16 17 18 18 20 25 31 34 36 37 42 43 44 44 45 45 46 46 47

Chapter 2 Geotechnical Aspects: Seafloor and Marine Soils 2.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 2.2 Dense Sands ....................................................................................................................... 2.3 Liquefaction of Soils.......................................................................................................... 2.4 Calcareous Sands............................................................................................................... 2.5 Glacial Till and Boulders on Seafloor............................................................................. 2.6 Overconsolidated Silts ..................................................................................................... 2.7 Subsea Permafrost and Clathrates..................................................................................

49 52 52 53 53 54 55

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20

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2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11

Weak Arctic Silts and Clays............................................................................................. Ice Scour and Pingos......................................................................................................... Methane Gas....................................................................................................................... Muds and Clays................................................................................................................. 2.11.1 Underwater Slopes in Clays ............................................................................. 2.11.2 Pile Driving “Set-Up” ........................................................................................ 2.11.3 Short-Term Bearing Strength ............................................................................ 2.11.4 Dredging .............................................................................................................. 2.11.5 Sampling .............................................................................................................. 2.11.6 Penetration ........................................................................................................... 2.11.7 Consolidation of Clays; Improvement in Strength ....................................... Coral and Similar Biogenic Soils; Cemented Soils, Cap Rock ................................. Unconsolidated Sands ...................................................................................................... Underwater Sand Dunes (“Megadunes”) ..................................................................... Bedrock Outcrops.............................................................................................................. Cobbles ................................................................................................................................ Deep Gravel Deposits ....................................................................................................... Seafloor Oozes.................................................................................................................... Seafloor Instability and Slumping; Turbidity Currents............................................... Scour and Erosion ............................................................................................................. Concluding Remarks ........................................................................................................

55 56 56 56 57 58 58 58 58 59 59 59 60 62 62 63 64 64 64 65 66

Chapter 3 Ecological and Societal Impacts of Marine Construction 3.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 3.2 Oil and Petroleum Products ............................................................................................ 3.3 Toxic Chemicals ................................................................................................................. 3.4 Contaminated Soils ........................................................................................................... 3.5 Construction Wastes.......................................................................................................... 3.6 Turbidity ............................................................................................................................. 3.7 Sediment Transport, Scour, and Erosion ....................................................................... 3.8 Air Pollution....................................................................................................................... 3.9 Marine Life: Mammals and Birds, Fish, and Other Biota .......................................... 3.10 Aquifers............................................................................................................................... 3.11 Noise .................................................................................................................................... 3.12 Highway, Rail, Barge, and Air Traffic ............................................................................ 3.13 Protection of Existing Structures .................................................................................... 3.14 Liquefaction........................................................................................................................ 3.15 Safety of the Public and Third-Party Vessels................................................................ 3.16 Archaeological Concerns .................................................................................................

69 69 70 71 71 71 72 72 73 74 74 75 75 77 77 78

Chapter 4 Materials and Fabrication for Marine Structures 4.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 4.2 Steel Structures for the Marine Environment ............................................................... 4.2.1 Steel Materials ....................................................................................................... 4.2.2 Fabrication and Welding ..................................................................................... 4.2.3 Erection of Structural Steel ................................................................................. 4.2.4 Coatings and Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures.................................. 4.2.5 High Performance Steels ..................................................................................... 4.3 Structural Concrete ...........................................................................................................

79 79 80 80 85 88 91 91

2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21

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4.3.1 4.3.2

4.4

4.5 4.6 4.7

General ................................................................................................................... 91 Concrete Mixes and Properties .......................................................................... 91 4.3.2.1 High Performance Concrete— “Flowing Concrete” ...................... 95 4.3.2.2 Structural Low-Density Concrete...................................................... 96 4.3.2.3 Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC)..................................... 97 4.3.3 Conveyance and Placement of Concrete .......................................................... 97 4.3.4 Curing..................................................................................................................... 98 4.3.5 Steel Reinforcement.............................................................................................. 98 4.3.6 Prestressing Tendons and Accessories............................................................ 102 4.3.7 Embedments........................................................................................................ 105 4.3.8 Coatings for Marine Concrete .......................................................................... 106 4.3.9 Construction Joints............................................................................................. 106 4.3.10 Forming and Support ....................................................................................... 107 4.3.11 Tolerances............................................................................................................ 108 Hybrid Steel–Concrete Structures................................................................................. 108 4.4.1 Hybrid Structures ............................................................................................... 109 4.4.2 Composite Construction.................................................................................... 109 Plastics and Synthetic Materials, Composites ............................................................ 111 Titanium ............................................................................................................................ 113 Rock, Sand, and Asphaltic-Bituminous Materials ..................................................... 114

Chapter 5 Marine and Offshore Construction Equipment 5.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 5.2 Basic Motions in a Seaway............................................................................................. 5.3 Buoyancy, Draft, and Freeboard ................................................................................... 5.4 Stability.............................................................................................................................. 5.5 Damage Control............................................................................................................... 5.6 Barges ................................................................................................................................ 5.7 Crane Barges .................................................................................................................... 5.8 Offshore Derrick Barges (Fully Revolving) ................................................................. 5.9 Semisubmersible Barges................................................................................................. 5.10 Jack-Up Construction Barges......................................................................................... 5.11 Launch Barges .................................................................................................................. 5.12 Catamaran Barges ........................................................................................................... 5.13 Dredges ............................................................................................................................. 5.14 Pipe-Laying Barges ......................................................................................................... 5.15 Supply Boats..................................................................................................................... 5.16 Anchor-Handling Boats.................................................................................................. 5.17 Towboats ........................................................................................................................... 5.18 Drilling Vessels ................................................................................................................ 5.19 Crew Boats........................................................................................................................ 5.20 Floating Concrete Plant .................................................................................................. 5.21 Tower Cranes ................................................................................................................... 5.22 Specialized Equipment ...................................................................................................

117 118 120 121 124 126 130 134 137 140 144 146 147 152 155 156 156 157 158 158 159 160

Chapter 6 Marine Operations 6.1 Towing............................................................................................................................... 161 6.2 Moorings and Anchors................................................................................................... 169 6.2.1 Mooring Lines ..................................................................................................... 169

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6.2.2 Anchors ................................................................................................................ 6.2.2.1 Drag Anchors ..................................................................................... 6.2.2.2 Pile Anchors........................................................................................ ...