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CASES AND MATERIALS ON CRIMINAL LAW Fourth Edition This new edition of Cases and Materials on Criminal Law has been thoroughly updated to provide a comprehensive selection of key materials drawn from law reports, legislation, Law Commission consultation papers and reports and Home Office publicatio...

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Oxford Criminal Law-JONAT HAN HERRING Ý Hoàng CCT V and Expert Evidence: Addressing t he Reliabilit y of New Sciences Michael Bromby

CASES AND MATERIALS ON CRIMINAL LAW Fourth Edition

This new edition of Cases and Materials on Criminal Law has been thoroughly updated to provide a comprehensive selection of key materials drawn from law reports, legislation, Law Commission consultation papers and reports and Home Office publications. Clear and highly accessible, this volume is presented in a coherent structure and provides full coverage of the topics commonly found in the criminal law syllabus. The range of thoughtfully selected materials and authoritative commentary ensures that this book provides an essential collection of materials and analysis to stimulate the reader and assist in the study of this difficult and challenging area of law. New features include: • revised text design with clear page layout, headings and boxed and shaded sections to aid navigation and readability • chapter introductions to highlight the salient features under discussion • short chapter table of contents to enable easier navigation • “Comments and Questions” sections to encourage students to reflect on their reading • expanded further reading to encourage students to engage further with the subject • a Companion Website to provide regular updates to the book This book is an invaluable reference for students on undergraduate or CPE/PG Diploma in Law criminal law courses, particularly those studying independently or on distance learning programmes. Professor Mike Molan, BA, LLM, FHEA, Barrister, is Acting Executive Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences at London South Bank University.

CASES AND MATERIALS ON CRIMINAL LAW Fourth Edition Mike Molan

First edition published 1997 by Cavendish Publishing Limited Second edition published 2001 by Cavendish Publishing Limited Third edition published 2005 by Cavendish Publishing Limited Fourth edition published 2008 by Routledge-Cavendish 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge-Cavendish 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge-Cavendish is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

fourth edition © Molan, Mike T 2008 first edition © Taylor, Alan and Hungerford-Welch, Peter 1997 second edition © Molan, Mike T 2001 third edition © Molan, Mike T 2005 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-88583-X Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0–415–42461–5 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–42461–5 (pbk)

PREFACE

As with previous editions, this sourcebook seeks to provide a handy set of reference materials for students studying criminal law on undergraduate or CPE programmes. It does not seek to provide the more lengthy discourse one might expect from a traditional textbook, but does provide extended extracts on key topics enabling the reader to gain a better understanding of the rationale for the development of the law and the policy issues underpinning the leading cases. Coverage is therefore provided of the mainstream criminal offences through statutory and case law materials along with a comprehensive selection of key materials drawn from Law Commission consultation papers and reports, and Home Office publications. Since the publication of the 3rd edition there have been a number of significant developments in the field of substantive criminal law and these are reflected in the structure and content of this new edition. The long awaited reform of the law relating to deception offences has now come into effect in the shape of the Fraud Act 2006 and this has had the effect of replacing all the previous deception offences with new offences under the 2006 Act. These changes are fully reflected in the text. Recent decisions of note that are extracted and analysed include R v Kennedy (manslaughter based on supply of heroin); Attorney General for Jersey v Holley (provocation); R v Mark and R v Willoughby (elements of killing by gross negligence); R v Barnes (consent as a defence to sporting injuries); Attorney General’s Reference (No 3 of 2004) (accessorial liability) and R v Hatton (intoxicated mistake in self-defence cases). Consideration is also given to the likely changes to the law relating to corporate manslaughter, at the time of writing contained in the Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Bill currently before Parliament. Two major law reform publications are extensively extracted and contextualised in this 4th edition: the Law Commission’s report on Murder, Manslaughter and Infanticide (Law Com No 304) – and the Law Commission’s Report on Inchoate Liability for Assisting and Encouraging Crime (Law Com 300). I would like to extend my thanks to staff at Routledge for their support and encouragement in producing this new edition, and as always love to my ‘pit lane’ crew, Alison, Grace, Joy, Miles and Parker who is still a mad hound. I have endeavoured to state the law as of 1st February 2007 although some later developments have been incorporated where possible. Professor Mike Molan London South Bank University May 2007

OUTLINE CONTENTS

Preface Table of Cases Table of Statutes 1 Introduction to criminal law: framework and procedures

v xiii xxxi 1

2 Actus reus: the external elements of an offence

54

3 Mens rea: the mental element

72

4 Homicide

145

5 Non-fatal offences against the person

252

6 Sexual offences

323

7 Accessorial liability

358

8 Inchoate offences

426

9 Theft

485

10 The Fraud Act 2006

558

11 Robbery, blackmail, burglary and going equipped

583

12 Criminal damage

610

13 Defences where mens rea is denied

631

14 Defences of compulsion

692

Index

785

DETAILED CONTENTS

Preface Table of Cases Table of Statutes

v xiii xxxi

1 Introduction to criminal law: framework and procedures 1.1 Introduction 1.2 What is criminal law? 1.3 Sources of criminal law 1.4 Interpreting criminal statutes 1.5 Classification of offences 1.6 The decision to prosecute 1.7 Establishing criminal liability – the burden and standard of proof 1.8 Criminal appeals 1.9 Codification of the criminal law 1.10 The impact of the Human Rights Act 1998 on substantive criminal law

1 1 2 5 7 7 9 16 25 34

2 Actus reus: the external elements of an offence 2.1 Terminology 2.2 A state of affairs amounting to an actus reus 2.3 Codification and law reform proposals 2.4 Actus reus must be voluntary 2.5 Criminal liability for omissions

54 54 55 56 56 57

3 Mens rea: the mental element 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Mens rea: intention – the background to the current law 3.3 Mens rea – recklessness 3.4 The significance of mistake 3.5 Children and proof of mens rea 3.6 Coincidence of actus reus and mens rea 3.7 Transferred malice

39

72 72 72 83 91 96 98 102

DETAILED CONTENTS 3.8 3.9

x

Strict liability Corporate bodies and proof of mens rea

110 132

4 Homicide 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The actus reus of homicide – the victim must be a ‘life in being’ 4.3 Causation 4.4 The gap in time between the defendant’s act and the victim’s death 4.5 The mens rea for murder 4.6 Voluntary manslaughter 4.7 Involuntary manslaughter: unlawful act manslaughter 4.8 Involuntary manslaughter: killing by gross negligence 4.9 Causing or allowing the death of a child or vulnerable adult 4.10 Codification and law reform proposals 4.11 Corporate manslaughter 4.12 Reform of corporate manslaughter

145 145 149 153 174 175 186 224 234 243 244 247 249

5 Non-fatal offences against the person 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Section 18 Offences Against the Person Act 1861 – wounding or grievous bodily harm with intent 5.3 Section 20 Offences Against the Person Act 1861 – malicious wounding or grievous bodily harm 5.4 Section 47 Offences Against the Person Act 1861 – assault occasioning actual bodily harm 5.5 Poisoning 5.6 Common assault and battery 5.7 ‘Stalking’ 5.8 Racially motivated assaults and harassment 5.9 Codification and law reform proposals 5.10 Consent to physical harm as a defence

252 252

264 275 279 283 284 287 293

6 Sexual offences 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Rape – the need for reform 6.3 The reformed offence of rape 6.4 ‘Quasi-rape’ – assault by penetration 6.5 Sexual assault 6.6 Causing a person to engage in sexual activity without consent 6.7 Offences against children under the age of 13 6.8 Protection of children between 13 and 16

323 323 325 329 348 349 351 352 353

7 Accessorial liability 7.1 Introduction

358 358

253 257

DETAILED CONTENTS 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10

Modes of participation: counselling Modes of participation: procuring Aiding and abetting Presence at the scene of the crime and failing to prevent the commission of offences How can an accomplice withdraw from participation in the commission of an offence? The mens rea of accomplices Establishing the mens rea of accomplices Where the principal commits acts outside the contemplation of the accomplice The relationship between the liability of the principal and the accomplice

360 361 364 366 372 380 383 389 416

8 Inchoate offences 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Incitement 8.3 Statutory conspiracy 8.4 Attempt 8.5 Doubly inchoate offences – inciting incitement

426 426 426 439 464 481

9 Theft 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8

485 485 486 501 522 532 538 545 549

Introduction Property: the statutory definition Appropriation Property belonging to another Dishonesty Intention to permanently deprive Making off without payment Taking a motor vehicle or other conveyance without authority

10 The Fraud Act 2006 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Why was it necessary to replace deception offences with fraud offences? 10.3 Section 2 of the Fraud Act 2006 – fraud by false representation 10.4 Section 3 of the Fraud Act 2006 – fraud by failing to disclose information 10.5 Section 4 of the Fraud Act 2006 – fraud by abuse of position 10.6 Section 11 of the Fraud Act 2006 – dishonestly obtaining services 10.7 Other offences under the Fraud Act 2006 10.8 Should dishonesty have been retained as an element of the Fraud Act 2006 offences?

558 558 559 563 569 571 573 578 579 xi

DETAILED CONTENTS 11 Robbery, blackmail, burglary and going equipped 11.1 Introduction: robbery 11.2 Blackmail 11.3 Burglary 11.4 Trespass with intent to commit a sexual offence 11.5 Aggravated burglary 11.6 Going equipped for stealing, etc

583 583 587 591 601 602 606

12 Criminal damage 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Property belonging to another 12.3 Damage or destroy 12.4 Without lawful excuse 12.5 Aggravated criminal damage 12.6 Other offences under the Criminal Damage Act 1971 12.7 Racially motivated criminal damage

610 610 611 612 614 620 628 628

13 Defences where mens rea is denied 13.1 Voluntary intoxication 13.2 Involuntary intoxication 13.3 Codification and law reform proposals 13.4 Sane automatism 13.5 Insane automatism

631 631 645 650 655 666

14 Defences of compulsion 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Duress per minas 14.3 The availability of the defence of duress per minas: murder and attempted murder 14.4 The availability of the defence of duress per minas: where a defendant voluntarily exposes himself to the risk of threats 14.5 Duress by threats – codification and law reform proposals 14.6 Duress of circumstances 14.7 A common law defence of necessity? 14.8 Self-defence 14.9 The statutory defence of reasonable force – Criminal Law Act 1967 14.10 Crown prosecution guidance on self-defence 14.11 The relevance of the defendant’s perception of the need to act in self-defence and the force required 14.12 Self-defence and necessity 14.13 Self-defence – codification and law reform proposals

692 692 693

Index

xii

704 710 714 722 730 741 754 755 757 766 768 785

TABLE OF CASES

A [2001] UKHL 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Re A (Children) (Conjoined Twins: Surgical Separation) [2000] 4 All ER 961 . . . . . . 61, 151, 693, 732, 767 A v UK (1999) 27 EHRR 611 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Abbott v R [1977] AC 755 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699, 704, 705, 707, 708 Abdul-Hussain and Others [1999] Crim LR 570 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695, 740, 741 Abdullahi [2006] All ER (D) 334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Absolom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 Acott [1997] 1 All ER 706 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Adams [1995] 1 WLR 52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Adomako [1994] 3 All ER 79; [1995] 1 AC 171; [1994] 3 WLR 288. . . . . 44, 46, 141, 153, 238, 240 ADT v United Kingdom [2000] Crim LR 1009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Ahluwalia [1992] 4 All ER 889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208, 212, 215 Airedale National Health Service Trust v Bland [1993] 1 All ER 82 . . . . . . . . . . . 67, 740, 767 Aitken, Bennet and Barson (1992) 95 Cr App R 304. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 Aitken and Others [1992] 1 WLR 1066 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Albert v Lavin [1982] AC 546 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Alford (JF) Transport Ltd; Alford; Payne [1997] 2 Cr App R 326 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Allan [1965] 1 QB 130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Allen [1985] AC 1029 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 Allen [1988] Crim LR 698 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645, 646 Allsop 64 Cr App R 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 Alphacell Ltd v Woodward [1972] AC 824 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Altham [2006] EWCA Crim 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 Ambler [1979] RTR 217 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Anderson; Morris [1966] 2 QB 110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396, 397, 398, 399 Anderson [1986] AC 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441, 443, 446, 448 Anderton v Ryan [1985] AC 560 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476, 477, 479, 480, 481 Andrews [2003] Crim LR 477 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231, 233 Andrews v DPP [1937] AC 576 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232, 238, 241, 623 Andronicou v Cyprus [1998] Crim LR 823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

TABLE OF CASES Appleyard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Armstrong [2000] Crim LR 379 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430, 434 Ashford and Smith [1988] Crim LR 682 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617, 618 Ashingdane v United Kingdom (1985) 7 EHRR 528 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Associated Octel Ltd [1996] 4 All ER 846, [1996] 1 WLR 1543 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Atakpu and Abrahams [1994] QB 69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 Attorney General for Jersey v Holley (Jersey) [2005] UKPC 23 . . . . . . . . . 213, 220, 714, 721 Attorney General for Northern Ireland’s Ref (No 1 of 1975) [1977] AC 105 . . . . . . . 752, 753 Attorney General for South Australia v Brown [1960] AC 432 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649, 659 Attorney General v Lockwood 9 M & W 378 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 1975) [1975] QB 773 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 1982) [1983] QB 751 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 1983) [1985] QB 182 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 1992) [1993] 1 WLR 274 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 Attorney General’s Reference (No 2 of 1982) [1984] QB 624 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532, 533 Attorney General’s Reference (No 2 of 1992) [1994] QB 91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 Attorney General’s Reference (No 2 of 1999) [2000] 3 All ER 182 . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 240, 242 Attorney General’s Reference (No 2 of 2004) [2005] EWCA Crim 1415 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 Attorney General’s Reference (No 3 of 1992) [1994] 1 WLR 409 . . . . . . . . . . . . 471, 474, 626 Attorney General’s Reference (No 3 of 1994) [1997] 3 All ER 936 . . . . . . 31, 101, 104, 149, 151, 176, 233 Attorney General’s Reference (No 3 of 2004) [2005] EWCA Crim 1882. . . . . . . . . . . 400, 407 Attorney General’s Reference (No 4 of 1980) [1981] 1 WLR 705 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Attorney General’s Reference (No 4 of 2004) [2005] EWCA Crim 889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Attorney General’s Reference (No 6 of 1980) [1...