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PUBLIC L AW Concepts and Themes.....................................................................................................................................3 Constitutionalism and the Rule of Law.........................................................................................................4 Constitutionalism.........................................................................................................................................4 Political and Legal Constitutionalism......................................................................................................4 Rule of Law...................................................................................................................................................5 Constitutional Hybrid.....................................................................................................................................8 Westminster constitutional inheritance......................................................................................................8 Responsible government........................................................................................................................8 Parliamentary sovereignty......................................................................................................................9 Constitutional conventions...................................................................................................................10 American constitutional inheritance...........................................................................................................11 Separation of Powers.............................................................................................................................12 Federalism..............................................................................................................................................12 Judicial review........................................................................................................................................14 Indigenous Enfranchisement........................................................................................................................16 Sovereignty................................................................................................................................................16 Indigenous sovereignty.........................................................................................................................17 Self-Determination.................................................................................................................................19 Treaty and agreement making..............................................................................................................19 Voting and the Constitution.......................................................................................................................20 Race and the drafting of the Australian Constitution..........................................................................20 Aboriginal people and the electoral franchise.....................................................................................20 1967 referendum and race power.........................................................................................................21 Reform: Constitutional Recognition.....................................................................................................22 Path to Federation: Legal Independence.....................................................................................................25 Colonial legislature.....................................................................................................................................25 Federation..................................................................................................................................................25 Colonial legacy............................................................................................................................................26 Australia Act and popular sovereignty.......................................................................................................27 Statutory Interpretation..............................................................................................................................29 Principle of Legality....................................................................................................................................29 Principles of Interpretation (Retrospective Legislation)............................................................................30 The Legislature.............................................................................................................................................. 32 History........................................................................................................................................................32 Powers and Function: Representation, Legislation and Accountability.....................................................32 Composition: Eligibility, Representativeness and Diversity........................................................................32 Accountability of Parliament......................................................................................................................32 Voting.........................................................................................................................................................32 Express and Implied Right to Vote........................................................................................................32 State Constitutions and the Legislature......................................................................................................34 Legislative power.......................................................................................................................................34 Manner and Form.......................................................................................................................................36

2 Federalism.....................................................................................................................................................37 Intergovernmental Relations.....................................................................................................................37 Referrals of Power......................................................................................................................................37 Federal Financial Relations.........................................................................................................................38 The Executive................................................................................................................................................39 History and Composition............................................................................................................................39 Power.........................................................................................................................................................40 Prerogative Power................................................................................................................................40 Accountability: Responsible government...................................................................................................41 Controlling the Executive......................................................................................................................41 Powers of Review.......................................................................................................................................44 Judicial review of administrative action (JRAA)...................................................................................44 Merits Review........................................................................................................................................45 Ombudsman..........................................................................................................................................46 Comparing Mechanisms of Accountability...........................................................................................47 The Judiciary.................................................................................................................................................49 History....................................................................................................................................................... 49 Composition and appointments................................................................................................................50 Accountability.............................................................................................................................................51 Judicial independence and separation of judicial power............................................................................52 Boilermakers (1956)...............................................................................................................................53 Judicial power............................................................................................................................................53 Exceptions to Boilermakers Case...............................................................................................................54 Persona Designata......................................................................................................................................54 Rights Protection..........................................................................................................................................56 Introduction to human rights....................................................................................................................56 Express Guarantees: Case Study of s117......................................................................................................56 Bills and Charters of Rights.........................................................................................................................57 Constitutional Change..................................................................................................................................59 Overview....................................................................................................................................................59 Last Referendum(s) – Australian Republic.................................................................................................60 Exam Notes...................................................................................................................................................62 Past Papers....................................................................................................................................................63 Semester 1 2015..........................................................................................................................................63 Semester 1 2014..........................................................................................................................................63 Semester 1 2013..........................................................................................................................................64

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Concepts and Themes Themes:  

Power and accountability Who has the last say

Concepts: 

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Political constitutionalism Where those who exercise political power are held to constitutional account through political means and political institutions such as Parliament Legal constitutionalism Where the principal means and principal institution through which the government is held to account is the law and the courts Rule of law Separation of powers The allocation of legislative, executive and judicial functions to distinct institutions, at least partially independent of one another. In Australia the executive is drawn in part from the legislative. Parliamentary sovereignty Responsible government The executive arm of the government is held accountable and responsible to Parliament for its actions Sovereignty Representative government Government by the people via elected representatives Bicameral legislative Constitutional conventions Judicial review Federalism The allocation of governmental (legislative) powers among different political and territorial units (subject to checks and balances e.g. prevailing power of the Constitution) Principle of legality JRAA and merits review

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Constitutionalism and the Rule of Law  

Australia’s Constitution came into effect on 1 January 1901, with the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp.) Australia’s Constitution exists as a hybrid of the UK’s Westminster system (with representative and responsible government within a constitutional monarchy) and the US’s separation of powers and judicial review

Constitutionalism What is a constitution?  

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Dicey (1959)  ‘all the rules which directly or indirectly affect the distribution or the exercise of the sovereign power in the state’ Jennings (1959)  A constitution is a document setting out ‘the rules governing the composition powers and methods of operation of the main institutions of government, and the general principles applicable to their relations to the citizens’ Sartori (1962)  a constitution establishes a ‘fundamental law, or a fundamental set of principles, and a correlative institutional arrangement, which would restrict arbitrary power and ensure a ‘limited government’’ Tomkins (2003) Constitutions do three things: 1. Provide for the creation of the institutions of the State 2. Regulate the relations between those institutions 3. Regulate the relations between those institutions and the people they govern They may also: 4. Tell us something about the values or goals of a society 5. Operate as a social contract

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Constitutions may be both written and unwritten o UK has an ‘unwritten’ constitution for there is no single document of constitution o A ‘written constitution’ still depends on workings of unwritten understandings Australia’s constitution is said to be both written and unwritten o Australian Constitution established in s9 of Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 and supplemented by The Statute of Westminster 1931 (Imp) and the Australia Act 1986 (Cth) Bryce (1901) and adopted by Dicey noted that there are also flexible and rigid constitutions o A flexible constitution is one under which every law of every description can legally be changed with the same ease and in the same manner by one and the same body’ o A rigid constitution is one ‘under which certain laws generally known as constitutional or fundamental laws cannot be changed in the same manner as ordinary laws’ Chapter 9 of the Constitution requires the majority of voters, in the majority of states to vote for any change to the constitution rendering Australia’s a rigid constitution

Political and Legal Constitutionalism  

Political constitutionalism: where those who exercise political power are held to constitutional account through political means and political institutions such as Parliament Legal constitutionalism: where the principal means and principal institution through which the government is held to account is the law and the courts

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Constitutions do not only create institutions of the State, but govern relations and hierarchy between them  creating systems of political and legal constitutionalism o In the US, the Supreme Court holds final discretion (legal constitutionalism) o In the UK the Parliament holds final discretion (political constitutionalism) o In Australia, principles of ministerial responsibility provide that government ministers are constitutionally responsible and accountable to Parliament Though Australia does have a strong adherence to political constitutionalism, judicial review undermines parliamentary sovereignty o Thompson (1980) frames Australia’s constitution as a ‘Washminster mutation’

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Kirby  ‘Centuries of experience demonstrates that judicial review has the enduring merit of subjecting governmental and other enthusiasms to the scrutiny of detached, independent-minded people well versed in history, including legal history…Constitutionalism and the rule of law prevail. Judicial and constitutional review are crucial attributes of liberty.’ Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) Knox, Isaacs, Rich, Starke ‘The extravagant use of the granted powers in the actual working of the Constitution is a matter to be guarded against by the constituencies and not by the Courts…No protection of this Court in such a case is necessary or proper’ Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) (Dawson, in dissent) ‘Those responsible for the drafting of the Constitution saw constitutional guarantees of freedoms as exhibiting a distrust of the democratic process. They preferred to place their trust in Parliament to preserve the nature of our society and regarded as undemocratic guarantees, which fettered its powers. Their model in this respect was, not the United States Constitution, but the British Parliament, the supremacy of which was by then settled constitutional doctrine.’ Plaintiff s157/2002 v The Commonwealth (2003) (Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow, Kirby and Hayne) ‘Such jurisdiction exists to maintain the federal compact by ensuring that propounded laws are constitutionally valid and ministerial or other official action lawful and within jurisdiction. In any written constitution where there are disputes over such matters, there must be an authoritative decision-maker. Under the Constitution of the Commonwealth the ultimate decision-maker in all matters where there is a contest, is this Court.’

Rule of Law  

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Tamanha  ‘the rule of law is an exceedingly elusive notion’ While the rule of law has a near universal principle (e.g. even in countries which reject democracy and individual rights), there exist a variety of interpretations o Shugang (Chinese law professor)  ‘Under the rule of law, the law is preeminent and can serve as a check against the abuse of power’ Tamanha  the rule of law stands in the peculiar state of being the preeminent legitimating political idea in the world today, without agreement upon precisely what it means o Distinguishes two forms of the rule of law formal and substantive AV Dicey existed strong intellectual influence over the drafters of Australia, with below principles having significant importance o No person may be punishable, or lawfully made to suffer except for a distinct breach of law established in ordinary legal manner before the courts o No person is above the law, with all institutions held accountable to the law o The general principles of the Constitution are a result of judicial decisions determining the rights of individuals before the court

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The existence of parliamentary sovereignty and a unitary system in the UK does not make it impossible for laws to be introduced which undermine or eradicate rule of law o Primary check on this power under political constitutionalism are general elections

Formal and Substantive Rule of Law 

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Craig (1997)  Formal conceptions of the rule of law address the manner in which the law was promulgated; clarity of ensuing norm; and the temporal dimension of the enacted norm o Not concerned with the content of the law itself, and whether it is a ‘good’ or ‘bad’ law o Focus upon the proper sources and form ...