Development OF Imperialism PDF

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DEVELOPMENT OF IMPERIALISMINTRODUCTIONWe discussed the problems in the Balkan Peninsula and debated the issues of the Balkan Wars and the Young Turk Movement in the previous Unit. In this unit, we'll look at the rise of capitalism in Europe, as well as the rise of imperialism and militarism. Europea...

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DEVELOPMENT OF IMPERIALISM INTRODUCTION

We discussed the problems in the Balkan Peninsula and debated the issues of the Balkan Wars and the Young Turk Movement in the previous Unit. In this unit, we'll look at the rise of capitalism in Europe, as well as the rise of imperialism and militarism. European nations sought trade routes with the Far East, explored the New World, and established settlements in North and South America, as well as Southeast Asia, from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth centuries, an era dominated by what is now known as Old imperialism. Between 1870 and 1914, Europe experienced a "Second Industrial Revolution," which accelerated the pace of change by boosting economic growth through science, technology, and industry. Political needs linked empire building with national greatness, which fueled the expansionist policy.

THEORIES AND MECHANISM OF IMPERIALISM To determine a basic idea of imperialism, various writers have provided their own points of view. Imperialism, according to P. Wolf (2009), is "the use of state power to secure (or at least try to secure) economic monopolies for national companies." Marx never used the term "imperialism," and nothing in his writings corresponds in any way to the concepts of imperialism advanced by later Marxist writers. His work covers the impact of capitalism on non-European societies in great detail, albeit in a disjointed manner. Unlike many of his contemporaries, Marx saw the non-European world's relative backwardness and subjugation to European masters as a transitory stage in the formation of a wholly capitalist world economy. In their work on Imperialism, Marxist writers have drew on various aspects of Marx's theory. Imperialism by J. A. Hobson was evaluated using a cost-benefit analysis, assuming that the costs outweighed the benefits. Imperialism, he claimed, was bad for democracy, bad for people living under foreign rule, and so forth. According to

Hobson, imperialism's economic roots are a response to the argument that imperialism is required, or at least desirable, to provide a market for excess capital or goods. The capitalist theory of capitalist imperialism was the name given to this widely held belief at the time. Between 1900 and 1920, three writers: Rudolf Hilferding, Nicolai Bukharin, and Vladimir Ilych Lenin, introduced the concept of imperialism into Marxist theory and developed a definite theory of imperialism. Because we use the term classical Marxist to refer to Marxist writers from Marx to Lenin and Trotsky, we will refer to their theories as classical Marxist theories of Imperialism. Written in early 1916, Lenin's "Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism" discussed imperialism as a stage in the development of capitalism. According to Lenin, the capitalist economy is predisposed to imperial expansion. He went on to say that the imperialist countries' working classes supported imperialist exploitation in the colonies because they were paid well by the imperialist governments. Bukharin defined imperialism as "a policy of finance capital while also specifying that imperialism may also be referred to as an ideology." According to him, imperialism's policy and ideology are structural characteristics of modern capitalism. Imperialism is not only the most closely linked system to modern capitalism, but it is also its most fundamental component." Imperialism, as defined by Bukharin, is the policy of a powerful nation expanding its territory through military conquest, political or economic dominance, or colonisation. "Imperialism can be defined as one way in which the centre nation has power over the periphery nation, in order to bring about a condition of interest disharmony between them," writes J. Galtung. Imperialism is defined as "a relationship between a centre and a periphery nation." "Under nationalist slogans, many nation states, all at the same time, look for geographical expansion and control of other areas, and participate in the imperialist project," T. Smith and W. Smith wrote in their definition of imperialism. New imperialism theories have emerged to discuss globalisation and militarization in a new light. In the historical context of the post-1989 world, American hegemony, and globalisation, Amin's work tries to update many of the previous arguments. He develops his concept of "Collective Imperialism" in a major article and three recent

books. Harvey reintroduces the concept of "Primitive Accumulation" as a permanent feature of capitalism that is repeated over and over. He sees "Primitive Accumulation" as the dominant theme of modern capitalism, and the globalisation project as a whole from this perspective.

GROWTH OF MILITARISM

Imperialism and militarism are inextricably linked. The glorification of military power is central to militarism. The "domination of a military man over the civilian, an undue preponderance of military demands, an emphasis on military considerations," according to German historian Alfred Vagts. Militarism was defined as an increase in military spending, an increase in military and naval forces, increased military influence over civilian government policies, and a preference for using force as a solution to all problems. In the political sphere, how does militarism manifest itself? • Military control of the civilian government is being strengthened.

After 1907, the military exerted a greater influence on policymaking. This could be seen in Germany and Russia in particular. At the time, the German Army was referred to as a "State within a State." Despite the fact that the Schlieffen Plan would enrage Great Britain and lead to a war, the German civilian government accepted it as the war plan. The Russian generals were also successful in forcing the Czar to accept full mobilisation in 1914.

• War of attrition

After 1871, the threat of secret alliances to the war atmosphere prompted a race for armaments among the powers against the backdrop of the international situation. During these years, the European nations' armies and naval forces grew significantly.

• Military Spending Has Increased

It's also worth noting that, between 1910 and 1914, France increased its defence spending by 10%, the United Kingdom by 13%, Russia by 39%, and Germany by 73%. Increased military spending forced all powers to increase their armies and improve their battleships.

• Rivalry in the Military:

Since 1870, the conscription system had been adopted by all continental European powers. The deterioration of diplomatic relations between the powers accelerated the military expansion programme after 1890. In general, all of the major powers increased their stockpiles of weapons, produced more modern war weapons, and constructed more strategic railways. Britain and Germany were the main rivals at sea in the naval arena. The 1898 German Navy Law increased the number of German battleships from nine to twelve. The German battle fleet was doubled after a Navy Law was passed in 1900. Meanwhile, Britain built its first Dreadnought (literally, the word means fear nothing). Dreadnoughts were battleships with 12 inch guns that were large, fast, and heavily armed. The naval competition heated up. Increased military and naval rivalry fueled fears of war (the German ruling class believed that the only way for Germany to become a world power was through war). This belief was bolstered by military preparations). By 1914, all European powers had prepared for war as a result of the armaments race. FORMATION OF POWER BLOCS AND ALLIANCES

From the last decade of the nineteenth century, conflicts within Europe over colonies had begun to create a very tense situation in Europe. Europe was gradually turning into a massive military camp. Simultaneously, propaganda for war was launched in

each country, with the goal of instilling hatred for other countries, portraying one's own country as superior to others, and glorifying war. Of course, there were those who spoke out against the militarization and the dangers of war. The alliances formed in Europe between opposing countries not only increased the risk of war, but also ensured that when it did break out, it would be of global proportions. Since the nineteenth century, European countries have been forming and reforming alliances. Finally, in the first decade of the twentieth century, two groups of countries or alliances emerged and confronted each other militarily. The Triple Alliance, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, was formed in 1882. However, Italy's commitment to the Alliance was shaky, as her primary goal was to wrest territory from Austria-Hungary in Europe and to conquer Tripoli with French assistance. In 1907, the Triple Entente was formed, consisting of France, Russia, and the United Kingdom. As the word 'Entente' (meaning 'an understanding') suggests, it was only a loose group based on mutual understanding. Because of the emergence of these two hostile camps, any conflict involving one of these countries would inevitably turn into an all-European conflict. Because the countries in these camps wanted to expand their colonial holdings, an all-European war would almost certainly turn into a world war. The establishment of these hostile camps coincided with a race to develop more and more lethal weapons, as well as larger armies and navies. Several crises occurred in the years leading up to the war. These factors contributed to Europe's bitterness and tension, as well as national chauvinism. Secret treaties were also signed by European countries in order to gain territory at the expense of others. These secret treaties frequently leaked out, instilling fear and suspicion in each country. COLONIAL EXPANSION

Imperialism in Europe did not begin in the 1800s. During the Age of Old Imperialism, European nations established colonies in the Americas, India, South Africa, and the

East Indies, as well as land along the African and Chinese coasts, in order to find a direct trade route to Asia. During the Victorian Era, which lasted from 1837 to 1901, Great Britain grew into an industrial powerhouse, producing more than a quarter of all industrial goods produced worldwide. Napoleon's investments in industry and large-scale projects, such as railroad construction, helped to promote prosperity in France. As a result, the Industrial Revolution sparked ambitions in many European countries and reaffirmed their determination to pursue aggressive overseas expansion.

Causes for the colonial expansion: Economic Reasons:

By 1870, European industrialised countries needed to expand their global markets in order to sell products that they couldn't sell domestically on the continent. Businessmen and bankers had excess capital to invest, and foreign investments, despite the risks, offered the incentive of higher profits. Because of the need for cheap labour and a steady supply of raw materials like oil, rubber, and manganese for steel, the industrial nations had to maintain firm control over these uncharted territories.

Military and Political Reasons:

Colonies were also seen as crucial to military power, national security, and nationalism by leading European nations. Military leaders claimed that in order to become a great power, a strong navy was required. To meet these needs, islands or harbours were taken. Colonies provided safe harbours and coaling stations to Europe's expanding navies, which they needed in times of war. The decision to occupy Egypt was largely motivated by national security concerns. The British Empire relied heavily on the Suez Canal's protection. The Suez Canal, which opened in 1869, cut the sea route between Europe and South Africa and East Asia in half. The canal was a lifeline for Britain's empire's crown jewel, India.

Humanitarian and Religious Goals: Many Westerners believed that Europe had a responsibility to civilise their distant cousins. In the 1890s, Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936) expressed this mission in his famous poem "The White Man's Burden," in which he urged his fellow Europeans to take up "their moral obligation" to civilise the uncivilised. Missionaries backed colonisation because they believed it would help them spread Christianity, the true religion, throughout Asia and Africa.

Social Darwinism:

"On the Origin of Species" was published in 1859 by Charles Darwin (1809–1882). Darwin claimed that all life had evolved over millions of years to its current state. Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection to explain the long, slow process of evolution. The term "survival of the fittest" was coined to describe the natural selection process. By claiming that some people were more fit (advanced) than others, social Darwinism aided imperialistic expansion. The Europeans believed that they, as the white race, were dominant, and that conquering the "inferior" people was only natural as nature's way of improving mankind. As a result, the conquest of inferior people was just, and the annihilation of weaker races was a natural law of nature. Imperialist ambitions were aided by advances in technology and medical knowledge. Quinine allowed Europeans to survive tropical diseases and travel into Africa and Asia's mosquito-infested interiors. The Western powers were able to increase their mobility and respond quickly to any situations that threatened their dominance thanks to the combination of the steamboat and the telegraph. They also gained a military advantage from the rapid-fire machine gun, which helped persuade Africans and Asians to accept Western control.

EMERGENCE OF CAPITALISM IN EUROPE Capitalism is a modern economic concept that gained popularity following the industrial revolution. Merchant Capitalism, or the merchant class accumulating capital through trade, existed in the pre-industrial period. The origins of capitalism are complex and debated, but fully-fledged capitalism is generally thought to have emerged in north-western Europe, particularly in the Low Countries (modern-day Flanders and the Netherlands) and Britain, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Capitalism's historiography can be divided into two broad schools. One is associated with economic liberalism, with Adam Smith, an eighteenth-century economist, as a foundational figure, and the other with Marxism, with Karl Marx, a nineteenth-century economist, as a key figure. Liberals see capitalism as a natural expression of human behaviour that has existed for millennia, as well as the most beneficial way of promoting human well-being. They believe capitalism arose from trade and commerce, allowing people to express their entrepreneurial instincts. Marxists tend to regard capitalism as a historically unique system of class relations. Capitalism, they believe, began with powerful people seizing control of the means of production and forcing others to sell their labour as a commodity. As a result, much of the work on the history of capitalism has been Marxist in nature. Capitalism, also known as free market economy or free enterprise economy, is an economic system in which the means of production are privately owned, production is guided, and income is distributed largely through the operation of markets. It has been dominant in the Western world since the decline of feudalism. Capitalist institutions existed in antiquity, and flourishing pockets of capitalism existed in the later Middle Ages in Europe. During the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, the growth of the British textile industry was instrumental in the development of

capitalism. The wealthy were thought to be more virtuous than the poor, so economic inequality was justified. Another factor was an increase in the supply of precious metals in Europe, which resulted in price inflation. Wages did not rise as quickly as prices during this time, and the capitalists were the primary beneficiaries of the inflation. During the mercantilist era, the rise of strong national states benefited the early capitalists (1500–1750). These states' policies were successful in providing the basic social conditions for economic development, such as uniform monetary systems and legal codes, and eventually enabled the shift from public to private initiative. The focus of capitalist development shifted from commerce to industry in England beginning in the 18th century. During the Industrial Revolution, the steady accumulation of capital from previous centuries was invested in the practical application of technical knowledge. In his 1776 book "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations," Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith advocated allowing self-regulating market forces to make economic decisions. Free trade, stable money (the gold standard), balanced budgets, and minimum levels of poor relief were all policies of 19th century political liberalism. In the nineteenth century, the growth of industrial capitalism and the development of the factory system created a new class of industrial workers, whose generally deplorable conditions inspired Karl Marx's revolutionary philosophy. Industrialization and the establishment of personal or group proprietorship on industries result in capitalism. Capitalism was strengthened by the development of railways, roads, and modern transportation. Railway expansion accelerated capitalism in France and Russia. The rise of capitalism was also aided by European governments' tariff policies. To protect domestic industries, governments imposed high tariffs on imported goods. The monopoly system arose as a result of the capitalist mode of production. Capitalism thrives on the toiling workers' blood and sweat. Imperialism and war are the inevitable outcomes of capitalism. Marxist economists regard capitalism's entire foundation as illogical, oppressive, and unjust. World War I was a watershed moment in the evolution of capitalism. International markets shrank after World War II, the gold standard was abandoned in favour of managed national currencies, banking hegemony shifted from Europe to the United

States, and trade barriers grew. The Great Depression of the 1930s put an end to most countries' laissez-faire policies (state non-interference in economic matters) and cast doubt on the capitalist system as a whole. The economies of the major capitalist countries, all of which had adopted some form of welfare state, performed well in the decades following World War II, restoring some of the confidence in the capitalist system that had been lost in the 1930s. Rapid increases in economic inequality, both globally and within individual countries, began to raise doubts about the system's long-term viability in the 1970s.

Stages of Capitalism: These states are not mutually exclusive and do not represent a fixed chronological order of historical change, but they do show a broad chronological trend. a) Laissez-faire capitalism is a social system in which the government's sole mission is to protect individual rights, including property rights, and in which the government has no role in the economy. b) Agrarian capitalism, also known as market feudalism, was a form of transition between feudalism and capitalism in which market relations replaced some but not all feudal relations in a society. c) Mercantilism, in which national governments attempted to maintain positive trade balances by acquiring gold bullion (bars). d) Industrial capitalism, which is characterised by heavy machinery and a clear division of labour. e) Monopoly capitalism, which is characterised by the rise of monopolies and trusts that dominate industry and other aspects of society. f) Colonialism, in which governments attempted to colonise other areas in order to gain access to markets and raw materials, as well as improve the standing of national capitalist firms. g) Welfare capitalism, in which mixed economies predominated and governments attempted to provide a safety net to mitigate capitalism's worst abuses.

h) Following WWII, major corporations rose to hegemony in mass production. The rise of advertising as a means of promoting mass ...