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SEVENTH EDITION ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUIT THEORY ROBERT BOYLESTAD LOUIS NASHELSKY PRENTICE HALL Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio Contents PREFACE xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii 1 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Ideal Diode 1 1.3 Semiconductor Materials 3 1.4 Energy Levels ...

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SEVENTH EDITION

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUIT THEORY ROBERT BOYLESTAD LOUIS NASHELSKY

PRENTICE HALL Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

Columbus, Ohio

Contents

1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17

2 2.1 2.2 2.3

PREFACE

xiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xvii

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

1

Introduction 1 Ideal Diode 1 Semiconductor Materials 3 Energy Levels 6 Extrinsic Materials—n- and p-Type 7 Semiconductor Diode 10 Resistance Levels 17 Diode Equivalent Circuits 24 Diode Specification Sheets 27 Transition and Diffusion Capacitance 31 Reverse Recovery Time 32 Semiconductor Diode Notation 32 Diode Testing 33 Zener Diodes 35 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 38 Diode Arrays—Integrated Circuits 42 PSpice Windows 43

DIODE APPLICATIONS

51

Introduction 51 Load-Line Analysis 52 Diode Approximations 57 v

2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13

3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12

4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13

5 5.1 5.2 5.3 vi

Contents

Series Diode Configurations with DC Inputs 59 Parallel and Series-Parallel Configurations 64 AND/OR Gates 67 Sinusoidal Inputs; Half-Wave Rectification 69 Full-Wave Rectification 72 Clippers 76 Clampers 83 Zener Diodes 87 Voltage-Multiplier Circuits 94 PSpice Windows 97

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

112

Introduction 112 Transistor Construction 113 Transistor Operation 113 Common-Base Configuration 115 Transistor Amplifying Action 119 Common-Emitter Configuration 120 Common-Collector Configuration 127 Limits of Operation 128 Transistor Specification Sheet 130 Transistor Testing 134 Transistor Casing and Terminal Identification 136 PSpice Windows 138

DC BIASING—BJTS

143

Introduction 143 Operating Point 144 Fixed-Bias Circuit 146 Emitter-Stabilized Bias Circuit 153 Voltage-Divider Bias 157 DC Bias with Voltage Feedback 165 Miscellaneous Bias Configurations 168 Design Operations 174 Transistor Switching Networks 180 Troubleshooting Techniques 185 PNP Transistors 188 Bias Stabilization 190 PSpice Windows 199

FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS Introduction 211 Construction and Characteristics of JFETs 212 Transfer Characteristics 219

211

5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13

6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13

7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

8 8.1 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.3 8.6

Specification Sheets (JFETs) 223 Instrumentation 226 Important Relationships 227 Depletion-Type MOSFET 228 Enhancement-Type MOSFET 234 MOSFET Handling 242 VMOS 243 CMOS 244 Summary Table 246 PSpice Windows 247

FET BIASING

253

Introduction 253 Fixed-Bias Configuration 254 Self-Bias Configuration 258 Voltage-Divider Biasing 264 Depletion-Type MOSFETs 270 Enhancement-Type MOSFETs 274 Summary Table 280 Combination Networks 282 Design 285 Troubleshooting 287 P-Channel FETs 288 Universal JFET Bias Curve 291 PSpice Windows 294

BJT TRANSISTOR MODELING

305

Introduction 305 Amplification in the AC Domain 305 BJT Transistor Modeling 306 The Important Parameters: Zi, Zo, Av, Ai 308 The re Transistor Model 314 The Hybrid Equivalent Model 321 Graphical Determination of the h-parameters 327 Variations of Transistor Parameters 331

BJT SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS

338

Introduction 338 Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias Configuration 338 Voltage-Divider Bias 342 CE Emitter-Bias Configuration 345 Emitter-Follower Configuration 352 Common-Base Configuration 358 Contents

vii

8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13

9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15

10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12

11 11.1 11.2 11.3 viii

Contents

Collector Feedback Configuration 360 Collector DC Feedback Configuration 366 Approximate Hybrid Equivalent Circuit 369 Complete Hybrid Equivalent Model 375 Summary Table 382 Troubleshooting 382 PSpice Windows 385

FET SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS

401

Introduction 401 FET Small-Signal Model 402 JFET Fixed-Bias Configuration 410 JFET Self-Bias Configuration 412 JFET Voltage-Divider Configuration 418 JFET Source-Follower (Common-Drain) Configuration 419 JFET Common-Gate Configuration 422 Depletion-Type MOSFETs 426 Enhancement-Type MOSFETs 428 E-MOSFET Drain-Feedback Configuration 429 E-MOSFET Voltage-Divider Configuration 432 Designing FET Amplifier Networks 433 Summary Table 436 Troubleshooting 439 PSpice Windows 439

SYSTEMS APPROACH— EFFECTS OF Rs AND RL

452

Introduction 452 Two-Port Systems 452 Effect of a Load Impedance (RL) 454 Effect of a Source Impedance (Rs) 459 Combined Effect of Rs and RL 461 BJT CE Networks 463 BJT Emitter-Follower Networks 468 BJT CB Networks 471 FET Networks 473 Summary Table 476 Cascaded Systems 480 PSpice Windows 481

BJT AND JFET FREQUENCY RESPONSE Introduction 493 Logarithms 493 Decibels 497

493

11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13

12 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11

General Frequency Considerations 500 Low-Frequency Analysis—Bode Plot 503 Low-Frequency Response—BJT Amplifier 508 Low-Frequency Response—FET Amplifier 516 Miller Effect Capacitance 520 High-Frequency Response—BJT Amplifier 523 High-Frequency Response—FET Amplifier 530 Multistage Frequency Effects 534 Square-Wave Testing 536 PSpice Windows 538

COMPOUND CONFIGURATIONS Introduction 544 Cascade Connection 544 Cascode Connection 549 Darlington Connection 550 Feedback Pair 555 CMOS Circuit 559 Current Source Circuits 561 Current Mirror Circuits 563 Differential Amplifier Circuit 566 BIFET, BIMOS, and CMOS Differential Amplifier Circuits 574 PSpice Windows 575

13

DISCRETE AND IC MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES

13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9

Introduction 588 Semiconductor Materials, Si, Ge, and GaAs 588 Discrete Diodes 590 Transistor Fabrication 592 Integrated Circuits 593 Monolithic Integrated Circuit 595 The Production Cycle 597 Thin-Film and Thick-Film Integrated Circuits 607 Hybrid Integrated Circuits 608

14 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8

544

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

588

609

Introduction 609 Differential and Common-Mode Operation 611 Op-Amp Basics 615 Practical Op-Amp Circuits 619 Op-Amp Specifications—DC Offset Parameters 625 Op-Amp Specifications—Frequency Parameters 628 Op-Amp Unit Specifications 632 PSpice Windows 638 Contents

ix

15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7

16 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9

17 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8

18 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 18.9 18.10 x

Contents

OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

648

Constant-Gain Multiplier 648 Voltage Summing 652 Voltage Buffer 655 Controller Sources 656 Instrumentation Circuits 658 Active Filters 662 PSpice Windows 666

POWER AMPLIFIERS

679

Introduction—Definitions and Amplifier Types 679 Series-Fed Class A Amplifier 681 Transformer-Coupled Class A Amplifier 686 Class B Amplifier Operation 693 Class B Amplifier Circuits 697 Amplifier Distortion 704 Power Transistor Heat Sinking 708 Class C and Class D Amplifiers 712 PSpice Windows 714

LINEAR-DIGITAL ICs

721

Introduction 721 Comparator Unit Operation 721 Digital-Analog Converters 728 Timer IC Unit Operation 732 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator 735 Phase-Locked Loop 738 Interfacing Circuitry 742 PSpice Windows 745

FEEDBACK AND OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS Feedback Concepts 751 Feedback Connection Types 752 Practical Feedback Circuits 758 Feedback Amplifier—Phase and Frequency Considerations 765 Oscillator Operation 767 Phase-Shift Oscillator 769 Wien Bridge Oscillator 772 Tuned Oscillator Circuit 773 Crystal Oscillator 776 Unijunction Oscillator 780

751

19 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7

20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 20.10 20.11

21 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9 21.10 21.11 21.12 21.13 21.14 21.15 21.16

POWER SUPPLIES (VOLTAGE REGULATORS)

783

Introduction 783 General Filter Considerations 783 Capacitor Filter 786 RC Filter 789 Discrete Transistor Voltage Regulation 792 IC Voltage Regulators 799 PSpice Windows 804

OTHER TWO-TERMINAL DEVICES

810

Introduction 810 Schottky Barrier (Hot-Carrier) Diodes 810 Varactor (Varicap) Diodes 814 Power Diodes 818 Tunnel Diodes 819 Photodiodes 824 Photoconductive Cells 827 IR Emitters 829 Liquid-Crystal Displays 831 Solar Cells 833 Thermistors 837

pnpn AND OTHER DEVICES

842

Introduction 842 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier 842 Basic Silicon-Controlled Rectifier Operation 842 SCR Characteristics and Ratings 845 SCR Construction and Terminal Identification 847 SCR Applications 848 Silicon-Controlled Switch 852 Gate Turn-Off Switch 854 Light-Activated SCR 855 Shockley Diode 858 DIAC 858 TRIAC 860 Unijunction Transistor 861 Phototransistors 871 Opto-Isolators 873 Programmable Unijunction Transistor 875 Contents

xi

22 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.8 22.9

xii

Contents

OSCILLOSCOPE AND OTHER MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

884

Introduction 884 Cathode Ray Tube—Theory and Construction 884 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Operation 885 Voltage Sweep Operation 886 Synchronization and Triggering 889 Multitrace Operation 893 Measurement Using Calibrated CRO Scales 893 Special CRO Features 898 Signal Generators 899

APPENDIX A: HYBRID PARAMETERS— CONVERSION EQUATIONS (EXACT AND APPROXIMATE)

902

APPENDIX B: RIPPLE FACTOR AND VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS

904

APPENDIX C: CHARTS AND TABLES

911

APPENDIX D: SOLUTIONS TO SELECTED ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS

913

INDEX

919

Acknowledgments Our sincerest appreciation must be extended to the instructors who have used the text and sent in comments, corrections, and suggestions. We also want to thank Rex Davidson, Production Editor at Prentice Hall, for keeping together the many detailed aspects of production. Our sincerest thanks to Dave Garza, Senior Editor, and Linda Ludewig, Editor, at Prentice Hall for their editorial support of the Seventh Edition of this text. We wish to thank those individuals who have shared their suggestions and evaluations of this text throughout its many editions. The comments from these individuals have enabled us to present Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory in this Seventh Edition: Ernest Lee Abbott Phillip D. Anderson Al Anthony A. Duane Bailey Joe Baker Jerrold Barrosse Ambrose Barry Arthur Birch Scott Bisland Edward Bloch Gary C. Bocksch Jeffrey Bowe Alfred D. Buerosse Lila Caggiano Mauro J. Caputi Robert Casiano Alan H. Czarapata Mohammad Dabbas John Darlington Lucius B. Day Mike Durren Dr. Stephen Evanson George Fredericks F. D. Fuller

Napa College, Napa, CA Muskegon Community College, Muskegon, MI EG&G VACTEC Inc. Southern Alberta Institute of Technology, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA Penn State–Ogontz University of North Carolina–Charlotte Hartford State Technical College, Hartford, CT SEMATECH, Austin, TX The Perkin-Elmer Corporation Charles S. Mott Community College, Flint, MI Bunker Hill Community College, Charlestown, MA Waukesha County Technical College, Pewaukee, WI MicroSim Corporation Hofstra University International Rectifier Corporation Montgomery College, Rockville, MD ITT Technical Institute Humber College, Ontario, CANADA Metropolitan State College, Denver, CO Indiana Vocational Technical College, South Bend, IN Bradford University, UK Northeast State Technical Community College, Blountville, TN Humber College, Ontario, CANADA xvii

Phil Golden Joseph Grabinski Thomas K. Grady William Hill Albert L. Ickstadt Jeng-Nan Juang Karen Karger Kenneth E. Kent Donald E. King Charles Lewis Donna Liverman William Mack Robert Martin George T. Mason William Maxwell Abraham Michelen John MacDougall Donald E. McMillan Thomas E. Newman Byron Paul Dr. Robert Payne Dr. Robert A. Powell E. F. Rockafellow Saeed A. Shaikh Dr. Noel Shammas Ken Simpson Eric Sung Donald P. Szymanski Parker M. Tabor Peter Tampas Chuck Tinney Katherine L. Usik Domingo Uy Richard J. Walters Larry J. Wheeler Julian Wilson Syd R. Wilson Jean Younes Charles E. Yunghans Ulrich E. Zeisler

xviii

Acknowledgments

DeVry Institute of Technology, Irving, TX Hartford State Technical College, Hartfold, CT Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA ITT Technical Institute San Diego Mesa College, San Diego, CA Mercer University, Macon, GA Tektronix Inc. DeKalb Technical Institute, Clarkston, GA ITT Technical Institute, Youngstown, OH APPLIED MATERIALS, INC. Texas Instruments Inc. Harrisburg Area Community College Northern Virginia Community College Indiana Vocational Technical College, South Bend, IN Nashville State Technical Institute Hudson Valley Community College University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, CANADA Southwest State University, Marshall, MN L. H. Bates Vocational-Technical Institute, Tacoma, WA Bismarck State College University of Glamorgan, Wales, UK Oakland Community College Southern-Alberta Institute of Technology, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA Miami-Dade Community College, Miami, FL School of Engineering, Beaconside, UK Stark State College of Technology Computronics Technology Inc. Owens Technical College, Toledo, OH Greenville Technical College, Greenville, SC Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI University of Utah Mohawk College of Applied Art & Technology, Hamilton, Ontario, CANADA Hampton University, Hampton, VA DeVry Technical Institute, Woodbridge, NJ PSE&G Nuclear Southern College of Technology, Marietta, GA Motorola Inc. ITT Technical Institute, Troy, MI Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA Salt Lake Community College, Salt Lake City, UT

p n

CHAPTER

Semiconductor Diodes

1

1.1 INTRODUCTION It is now some 50 years since the first transistor was introduced on December 23, 1947. For those of us who experienced the change from glass envelope tubes to the solid-state era, it still seems like a few short years ago. The first edition of this text contained heavy coverage of tubes, with succeeding editions involving the important decision of how much coverage should be dedicated to tubes and how much to semiconductor devices. It no longer seems valid to mention tubes at all or to compare the advantages of one over the other—we are firmly in the solid-state era. The miniaturization that has resulted leaves us to wonder about its limits. Complete systems now appear on wafers thousands of times smaller than the single element of earlier networks. New designs and systems surface weekly. The engineer becomes more and more limited in his or her knowledge of the broad range of advances— it is difficult enough simply to stay abreast of the changes in one area of research or development. We have also reached a point at which the primary purpose of the container is simply to provide some means of handling the device or system and to provide a mechanism for attachment to the remainder of the network. Miniaturization appears to be limited by three factors (each of which will be addressed in this text): the quality of the semiconductor material itself, the network design technique, and the limits of the manufacturing and processing equipment.

1.2 IDEAL DIODE The first electronic device to be introduced is called the diode. It is the simplest of semiconductor devices but plays a very vital role in electronic systems, having characteristics that closely match those of a simple switch. It will appear in a range of applications, extending from the simple to the very complex. In addition to the details of its construction and characteristics, the very important data and graphs to be found on specification sheets will also be covered to ensure an understanding of the terminology employed and to demonstrate the wealth of information typically available from manufacturers. The term ideal will be used frequently in this text as new devices are introduced. It refers to any device or system that has ideal characteristics—perfect in every way. It provides a basis for comparison, and it reveals where improvements can still be made. The ideal diode is a two-terminal device having the symbol and characteristics shown in Figs. 1.1a and b, respectively.

Figure 1.1 Ideal diode: (a) symbol; (b) characteristics.

1

p n

Ideally, a diode will conduct current in the direction defined by the arrow in the symbol and act like an open circuit to any attempt to establish current in the opposite direction. In essence: The characteristics of an ideal diode are those of a switch that can conduct current in only one direction. In the description of the elements to follow, it is critical that the various letter symbols, voltage polarities, and current directions be defined. If the polarity of the applied voltage is consistent with that shown in Fig. 1.1a, the portion of the characteristics to be considered in Fig. 1.1b is to the right of the vertical axis. If a reverse voltage is applied, the characteristics to the left are pertinent. If the current through the diode has the direction indicated in Fig. 1.1a, the portion of the characteristics to be considered is above the horizontal axis, while a reversal in direction would require the use of the characteristics below the axis. For the majority of the device characteristics that appear in this book, the ordinate (or “y” axis) will be the current axis, while the abscissa (or “x” axis) will be the voltage axis. One of the important parameters for the diode is the resistance at the point or region of operation. If we consider the conduction region defined by the direction of ID and polarity of VD in Fig. 1.1a (upper-right quadrant of Fig. 1.1b), we will find that the value of the forward resistance, RF, as defined by Ohm’s law is VF 0V RF      0 ⍀ IF 2, 3, mA, . . . , or any positive value

(short circuit)

where VF is the forward voltage across the diode and IF is the forward current through the diode. The ideal diode, therefore, is a short circuit for the region of conduction. Consider the region of negatively applied potential (third quadrant) of Fig. 1.1b, 5, 20, or any reverse-bias potential VR RR       ⴥ ⍀ IR 0 mA

(open-circuit)

where VR is reverse voltage across the diode and IR is reverse current in the diode. The ideal diode, therefore, is an open circuit in the region of nonconduction. In review, the conditions depicted in Fig. 1.2 are applicable.

+

VD

–

Short circuit ID I D (limited by circuit) (a) 0

–

VD

+

VD

Open circuit

ID = 0 (b)

Figure 1.2 (a) Conduction and (b) nonconduction states of the ideal diode as determined by the applied bias.

In general, it is relati...