ENSCI 99 Lab Manual Fall 18 PDF

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Environmental Science 099 Laboratory Manual Fall 2018

Christine Ramadhin School of Earth & Environmental Sciences Queens College, CUNY

ENSCI099 – A Practical Guide to Environmental Choices

School of Earth &Environmental Sciences, Queens College, CUNY

Cover page picture shows a lake in Central Park, New York City where New Yorkers can relax in a tranquil and bucolic setting in the midst of a bustling and busy urban jungle. !

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Table of Contents

Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 3! Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................................... 4! Basic Laboratory Rules and Safety ................................................................................................. 5! 1.0 What is the scientific method? ................................................................................................. 8! Sustainability ............................................................................................................................ 15! 2.0 What does exponential population growth have to do with environmental issues? ............ 15! 3.0 How can I be green in the urban jungle of New York City? ..................................................20! 4.0. Are you living a green lifestyle? ............................................................................................ 25! 5.0 How do I make sustainable food consumption choices?....................................................... 29! Drinking Water Quality.......................................................................................................... 36! 6.0 What does Hydraulic Fracturing have to do with drinking Water Quality? ......................... 36! 7.0 What is really in our drinking water? .................................................................................... 41! 8.0 Intro to Lab Final Project (Poster or Video) .......................................................................... 46! Air Quality.................................................................................................................................. 48! 9.0 What is really in the air we breathe? .....................................................................................48! 10.0 What is the Clean Air Act and how has it affected emissions across the US? ..................... 55! Climate Change......................................................................................................................... 62! 11.0 How is average annual temperature in New York City changing?....................................... 62! 12.0 Will New York City need a seawall? ..................................................................................... 69! 13.0 How can New York City become a zero waste city? ............................................................. 76! 14.0 Presentation of Final Project (Poster or Video) ................................................................... 81!

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ENSCI099 – A Practical Guide to Environmental Choices

Introduction The main goal of this Environmental Science Laboratory course is for you to think about how we interact with the environment, our impacts and the results of these, not just in our immediate vicinity but globally as we make everyday choices. We will focus on three main topics; sustainability, pollution and climate change. I hope that by exploring the activities in this lab manual, you will recognize the significance of your decisions and be challenged to think about reducing your impacts by making more environmentally friendly choices that are based on scientific evidence. Each week you will explore one environmental problem that is common in most urban environments, first by identifying the issue and looking at the research data to understand the science behind the problem. Then you will examine possible solutions to these problems and come up with ways in which these issues can be better addressed, especially from a grass root perspective. You will gain experience in accessing and collecting data from online environmental databases and generating your own data by conducting simple experiments in the lab. While most of the laboratory exercises require you to access online databases to gather scientific evidence and see the process of science, for others you will be conducting your own experiment to collect data that will help you in exploring the questions that will be addressed each week. Over the semester as you work through the lab book you will also develop Microsoft Excel skills such as creating tables, graphs, and basic calculations. Most of you now spend a large amount of time on social media and for at least two of the laboratory sessions you will get an opportunity to use it as a tool to demonstrate that you can develop ideas and effectively communicate them to your peers and the public. Overall, this course is intended to be both educational and fun as you learn about common urban environmental problems and the role you play in leading to profound changes in lifestyles that are sustainable.

Christine Ramadhin

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Acknowledgement I would like to thank Dr. George Hendrey for the opportunity to work on this project, his input with numerous ideas, guidance, encouragement and taking the time to edit the drafts. Additionally, I appreciate the effort Eric Kutter made in helping to implement these lab exercises, numerous suggestions, and insight on improving this manual, improving the quality and practicality of it.

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ENSCI099 – A Practical Guide to Environmental Choices

Basic Laboratory Rules and Safety For some sessions of this course you will be working in an Environmental Science laboratory and it is important that you be mindful of the rules to minimize any risks, listen carefully to your instructor and if some things appear to be amiss be sure to notify your instructor immediately. o Use your common sense: At all times in the laboratory or while attending other activities as a part of this class, think about what you are doing. o Be responsible: You are responsible for your actions as they apply not only to yourself but also to others and to the facilities and equipment you are using. o Keep a serious attitude: Whether in the lab or in the field, this class is not a time for practical jokes, roughhouse or other play. o Be careful: You may be using potentially dangerous materials and tools. Follow the directions of your instructor regarding safe practices. o Proper disposal of wastes: Be sure to properly dispose of waste chemicals, biological waste or items such as broken glass or contaminated towels. If you are unsure how to dispose of these items, ask the instructor. Most of these items are not to be placed in the classroom trash bin, so be sure to follow instructions for proper disposal of laboratory materials. o No drinking or eating in the lab: This is not a safe place for eating or drinking. Be careful not to put items that might be contaminated into your mouth. Water bottles and food must be kept inside bags and may not be consumed in the laboratory. o Be neat: Keep your workplace clean and orderly. Coats, backpacks and purses do not belong on the lab bench and must not be placed where someone might trip on them. Discard waste materials and liquids according to instructions, and use common sense. Before you leave the lab place check your seat under the lab bench (or otherwise arrange it neatly), be sure your workspace is clean, neat, and ready for the next class. o Keep clean: If you have been handling materials that might be contaminated, wash your hands when you are through. o Electrical safety: Be careful with electricity. Do not handle electric cords with wet hands. Be sure that electrical cords are arranged so that they will not be accidentally pulled on. Do not allow them to get under foot. Tell the lab instructor if you see damaged, frayed or worn out electrical cords o Know where safety equipment is: You should know where the eye-wash, fire extinguisher and other safety equipment are located, and how to use them. You should know where the exits from the room and building are. !

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o Don’t be shy about problems: If there is a spill of any liquid in any amount, an electrical arc or spark, or any accidental flame, tell the instructor immediately. o Respond to an emergency appropriately: In an emergency, follow instructions from the lab instructor. If there is a problem the instructor cannot handle, report it to the department office (Rm D-216) or to any faculty member. In case of fire or serious injury call the campus police at (718) 997- 5911 or use the fire alarm as appropriate (inappropriate use of the fire alarm is a serious offense). o Be safe outdoors: The behavior rules listed above also apply when the class is outdoors. Wear shoes and clothes appropriate to the field exercise and be prepared for inclement weather. You will not be excused from a lab because you forgot to bring a raincoat or other proper field clothing. Wearing appropriate clothes is a component of being prepared for the class, so be sure to read the lab manual before class so that you know what to expect each week. These laboratory rules and safety information were taken from Environmental Science 100 Laboratory Manual, School of Earth and Environmental Science, Queens College, CUNY, New York. Participation and Grading 1) Participation in all lab exercise is mandatory and will be factored into the grade of each lab. You must attend lab each week and turn in a lab report, these will be worth 80% of your overall laboratory grade. If you miss a lab session, you will receive a grade of zero (0) for that assignment. You may not turn in a lab report for a lab session that you did not attend. Even though make-up assignments will be offered if you can show that your absence was due to a legitimate reason, it is not guaranteed especially if the next laboratory section has moved on to the next laboratory topic. You cannot under any circumstances miss more than three (3) lab sessions. Part of your grade will be based on your active participation and this is based on things like punctuality, discussions, following lab rules, working on lab experiments and cleaning up your lab station. 2) Laboratory reports are due at the beginning of the following lab session unless otherwise mentioned. Late assignments will be docked 10% for each DAY it is late. All assignments must be typed, printed, stapled, and handed in on paper. No email assignments will be accepted unless otherwise authorized by your lab instructor. Some laboratory reports may cover two weeks, please note that if you have an unexcused absence for one of these weeks then you can only submit a report that covers the week you attended and will receive a grade of zero (0) for the week missed. 3) A short quiz will be given at the beginning of each lab session (less than 10 minutes). The quiz will be about that day’s laboratory exercise and may contain something from the previous week’s work; it is worth 20% of the overall laboratory grade, so you must read each exercise in advance. The quiz may also contain one question about the previous week’s lab activities. There will be no quiz given for the first or last labs. If you show up late to lab and miss the quiz, you will receive a zero for it. There will be no make-up quizzes.

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ENSCI099 – A Practical Guide to Environmental Choices

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1.0 What is the scientific method? Research; the curiosity to find the unknown to make it known. ~Lailah Gifty Akita 1.1 What is the scientific method? The scientific method is an approach to understanding the world. It is also a philosophy of life, a way of evaluating all that we see, things we cannot see (like electrons, microbes, the edge of the universe, etc.) and even those things we think that we know for sure. Science is based on skepticism, that is, questioning all before us. In our daily lives, we do not doubt that gravity works, but we wonder why it works and if there could be any exceptions to the attractive forces between objects. The fact is, scientists and other philosophers have not been able to provide a satisfactory answer to such a basic fact of nature. So, while we all accept the reality of gravitational attraction, none of us, not even the wisest scientists or philosophers today, actually knows why gravity works as it does. This curiosity about things we don’t understand motivates scientists to delve deeper into the workings of nature, to try to understand and describe how and why such a process or property works. This unit outlines a series of steps that are followed by scientists as they work to acquire new knowledge, or expand upon previous knowledge. It is important that there be discrete, well understood steps that can be followed to help scientists ensure that the data they are collecting is valid and appropriate to answer the question or problem they are concerned with, and to help them analyze the data they have collected. By having a well-recognized order to the process, it allows other scientists to repeat the same experiments to either manipulate different variables or to verify the results of the first experiment, or find it invalid. This allows scientists and others to be confident that they have collected the most reliable and accurate data possible to address their initial questions. As we introduce the individual steps of the scientific method, you will hopefully recognize that science is a process. Science is not merely a collection of facts. It is a process by which we attempt to come as close as we can to understanding the complex relationships in the physical universe. Using science, or more specifically the scientific method, to answer a question or address a problem, does not necessarily lead us to absolute truth. For example, we do not need to absolutely “prove” a cause and effect relationship in nature with complete certainty before we can demonstrate a cause and effect relationship within reason. This is because we don’t know, and can never know, everything about the world around us, so some assumptions need to be made. Stating these assumptions clearly is a critical step in science. Following the scientific method allows us to gather information and to achieve the best possible answer to a particular question with the information and observations available to us. The process of science and the scientific method help us to collect information, or make observations, that relate to our question or hypothesis and allow us to make reasonable, working predictions of processes into the future. 1.2. Steps of the scientific method The steps followed for the scientific method are pretty much universal across all scientific disciplines. Some studies may be more observational, such as studies of animal behavior in the wild or gravitational interactions among galaxies, while some studies may be more experimental, such as manipulating nutrient conditions in order to achieve more productive plant growth. !

ENSCI099 – A Practical Guide to Environmental Choices The wide diversity in application of the scientific process allows for some variation within each step, but the order and the basic steps remain the same. These basic steps are outlined below. Typical steps in the scientific method are: 1. Observe something you do not fully understand. Science begins with an observation that stimulates your curiosity. 2. Form a question. Referring to the observation, you may begin by asking, “Why does that happen, and how does it happen?” Why does the sun seem to rise each morning and set each night? Why are there more birds in my backyard in the summer than in the winter? What is the structure of a protein that allows it to bind carbon dioxide and function as an enzyme? We may have many questions and often we find that one question leads to another. Although these questions often begin as very broad or general questions, over time we refine the questions to be quite specific. When designing a study, you want to make a question as specific as possible in order to reduce the number of variables involved in finding the answer, and to make it easier to collect specific data. 3. Perform background research. Scientists don’t want to continually re-invent the wheel (as the saying goes). To help design a scientific study, you need to know what is already known about the problem you are trying to address. This begins with finding out what others know about the question you are interested in. Scientists often rely on peer-reviewed publications, for example, those categorized in the Web of Science (www.webofscience.org), for their background research. Extensive background knowledge will help you make your initial question more specific, and give you the information necessary to design a sound scientific study to address your question. And quite frequently, one is able to answer the question without going any further, because another scientist has already addressed your question. But, another important part of the scientific method is that observations and experiments must be repeatable. 4. Form a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a potential answer to your initial question. A hypothesis is not a question (e.g. what color is the sky?); it is a statement that is testable (e.g. the sky is blue). The hypothesis is posed in such a way that it can be tested and evaluated. Your hypothesis should be based on current knowledge of the subject at hand, and identify a specific concept to be evaluated. Often, there is a specific variable to be tested to achieve an answer to your question. 5. Test the hypothesis. You will design an experiment or a set of specific observations to be collected to test whether your hypothesis was supported (data collected are consistent with your hypothesis) or if it needs to be rejected (data collected suggest that your hypothesis is incorrect). It is important to take careful notes during this process so that you can describe very clearly the steps that you have taken so that the process could be repeated by another researcher. Remember, the scientific process is repeated over and over again to help refine our hypotheses and our understanding, so it is important to be able to repeat your steps and to be able to make minor alterations the next time around. On the practical side, in this class you will also need detailed notes to complete your graded lab report. 6. Analyze the data and draw conclusions. After you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This will involve organizing the data into charts and tables, performing any necessary calculations, making graphs and looking for trends or relationships in your data. This is where you also draw conclusions about your hypothesis. Was your hypothesis supported by the data? If it was not, you may need to do some further study, or you might just reject the hypothesis. !

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7. Report results. Once you have achieved your results, it is important to report it so that this new knowledge can be shared with others. The original question and hypothesis, background research, experimental and observational methods, data and analysis of data should be included in the report. In this way other scientists, your peers who specialize in these types of studies, can review your work and perhaps try to replicate it. This process of peer review and re-analysis is critical to the scientific process. It helps to reduce bias and ensure trustworthy results as we search for the best possible answers to your questions. 1.3. Data Analysis Whether we collect our own data for each lab exercise or make use of other available databases, you will be asked in each case to analyze the data, which is often most easily done by creating graphs. Before this can be done however, there is almost always a mathematical component to the analysis. Often, especially in large scientific studies, there may be hundreds or thousands of data points collected tha...