Essay Accident Causation 1 PDF

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Introduction The rapid growing global demand of goods and services has led to many infrastructure’s expansion and in turn complexity in processing systems. Rathnayakaa, Khan & Amyotte (2012) discusses how the increase in complexity of processing systems results in the need to address more complex failure modes and the rise of modern safety issues. This is where accident causation models contribute their theories in order to better understand the factors and processes involved in accidents or failures to develop preventative strategies (Arboleda & Abraham, 2004). It is crucial to identify the root causes of accidents in order to improve the health and safety performance of a firm (Hamid, et al., 2008). Arboleda and Abraham (2004) discusses how improving health and safety in a firm would result in higher profitability, efficiency, and competitiveness and decrease disputes, conflicts and delays. There have been many scholar who have discussed and developed theories and models that aim to identify the root causes of these industrial accidents of which this paper will be discussing the most popular models. These theories and models provide insight on how accidents occur and thereby guiding preventative measures. Causes for accidents are diverse in nature as processes are diverse to the firm. However, these theories and models discuss the common themes and categorizes the thematic causes into two: linear models and complex linear models. Linear models, also known as single factor models, proposes that accidents are caused by one factor after another in a sequence or chain while complex non linear models proposes that accidents occur due to multiple factors acting in synchrony. DeCamp & Herskovitz (2015) discusses how understanding the series or combinations of system failures help ensure that employees are safe from harms and that employers are able to responsibly execute an effective safety management that boosts efficiency and decreases costs. In this paper, various well-known accident causation and investigation theories and models, their effective application and limitations will be discussed in order to assess which theories help prevent industrial accidents best.

Accident Causation Theories and Models Domino theory What is the Domino Theory? Heinrich (1931) developed one of the earliest linear accident causation models proposing a “fivefactor accident sequence” wherein each factor prompts the next leading to accidents that causes injuries. The Domino Theory got its name by using the metaphor of toppling dominoes lined up

in a row as comparison to the sequence of accident factors. Heinrich discusses the five factors that sequentially lead to an accident and an injury as follows: 1. Ancestry and social environment These are the undesirable personality traits of a worker which he may have inherited or obtained from his ancestry or social environment. These traits were deemed to increase the likeliness of the second factor occurring: personal fault. The traits included general descriptions such as ignorance, stubbornness, temper, greed, and recklessness. 2. Personal Fault These are faults committed by the worker during his/her work process and were attributed to the first domino, their personal traits. Personal faults were discussed to have contributed to prompting the third domino: unsafe acts, mechanical and physical hazards. 3. Unsafe acts, mechanical and physical hazard This are considered the direct causes of the accident and involves activities such as noncompliance to safety protocols or non-use of safety equipment. 4. Accident Accidents are undesirable and unexpected events that cause damages and injuries. 5. Injury Injuries are suffered by the employees and can range from minor to severe, and in some cases permanent. It was suggested that the removal of one of these “dominoes”, particularly the third one, would interrupt the sequence and prevent the accident. How do we use it? Although Heinrich did not provide empirical data to support his theory, it is still a useful foundation for discussions of accident causation. It was also found to be adapted by many of its successors in concept. An example of such adaptation is that of Weaver in 1971where the author proposed that the last three dominoes were instead caused by management omissions. Weaver discussed the role of operational errors by identifying the reasons why unsafe acts were allowed to persist and determining whether management had the safety knowledge to avoid the accident [ CITATION Tar00 \l 1033 ]. Another example is that of Adams in 1976 where the emphasis of the first three dominos was shifted from person features to organizational features. Another application was the adaptation of Bird and Loftus which reflected the impact that management had on the process of accident causation. These three examples show how the domino theory is one which is adapted by researchers and employers to address their needs and develop a fitting preventive measure for their firm. It is also useful as a starting point in understanding how accidents occur in theory. Human Factors Theory What is the Human Factors Theory?

The human factors theory of accident causation discusses how accidents are a result of a chain of events that is primarily the effect of human error. It explores three broad factors that contribute to the occurrence of human error: overload, inappropriate response, and inappropriate activities. Mackett (2011) discusses these factors in more detail: 1. Overload When employees are assigned to work that is above their capacity or capability, they suffer overload that causes fatigue, inefficiency, and demotivation at work thereby resulting in accidents. Overload may be due to to physical and psychological factors or influenced by environmental factors, internal factors, and situational factors:  Environmental Factors Ventilation, space, noise, lighting, temperature, among others are environmental factors that when insufficient or inappropriate can lead to accidents. One example is insufficient office spaces that result in congestion in the walkways increasing the likelihood of accidents due to stampedes or other causes.  Internal Factors Emotional issues and psychological issues can contribute to accidents by making the workers distracted or unable to focus during work. These can lead to human error that can harm the employee and those around him or her.  Situational Factors Due to its nature, unfamiliarity, or misinterpretation of instruction, situations may involve high levels of risk which may increase the likelihood of accidents. 2. Inappropriate Response Inappropriate response to hazards and safety measures may include insufficient or inappropriate work force, work station, and safety equipment and protocols as well as ignoring or being ignorant to potential hazards are all possible causes of accidents in the workplace. 3. Inappropriate Activities Inappropriate activities may occur due to the lack of sufficient training of an employee before performing certain tasks involving machineries and processes. It may also be due to a lack of appropriate safety protocols or their non-adherence. Another cause is a misjudgment of the degree of risk involved in these activities.

How do we use it? The Human Factors Theory is a useful model for labor intensive infrastructures and small scale industries that rely less on capital investments. However, this theory is also useful for companies that have many employees as it discusses the possible issues which contribute to the employee’s

potential committing of error. One such example of using the Human Factors Theory is the assessment and addressing of overload among workers. Specifically, internal factors may be addressed by providing adequate breaks in between shifts and encouraging employees to take leaves as necessary for their well-being and work life balance.

Accident/Incident theory What is the Accident/Incident Theory? The accident/incident theory of accident causation is an extension of the human factors theory as it presented modern elements that contribute to human error such as ergonomic traps, the decision to err, and systems failures. This theory also focuses on the factors that lead to human error as it stipulates that human error is the leading cause of accidents/incidents and as such requires employers to assess these factors to ensure that human error is minimized or diminished to establish a safe work environment [ CITATION Placeholder1 \l 1033 ]. The extended factors include:

Overload Similar to the Human Factors Theory, the Accident/Incident Theory determines the internal factors that contribute to overload that in turn results to human errors and accidents:

     

Pressures Fatigue Motivation Drugs Alcohol Worry

Ergonomic Traps An addition to overload is ergonomic traps that are a bit more difficult to point out as the symptoms or ergonomic injuries accumulate throughout the years. These ergonomic traps cause discomfort or strain to the employee which may result in injuries or illnesses such as back pains, spinal injuries, and more. Ergonomic traps may include:

 Incompatible Workstation  Incompatible Expectations Decision to Err

This factor leads to human error that results in accidents and thereby injuries and damages. The decision to err or make mistakes may result from the following elements:

 Misjudgment of Risks  Unconscious Desire to Err  Logical Decision Based on Situation / Circumstances System Failures This factor occurs due to failure on managerial decisions/behaviors with regards to safety and wellness. System Failures may include the following elements:

 Policies Safety first policies and protocols should be present to ensure the safety of employees from human error resulting in injuries or illnesses. A basic example of this is to have a hand-washing policy before and after breaks to ensure that any chemical residues or dirt will not stick with the employee without safety equipment, clothing, or gear.  Responsibilities There must be a clear line of accountability to ensure that supervision and safety management is properly executed.  Training As was mentioned previously, the need for sufficient training before allowing employees to perform tasks helps mitigate the risks associated with this task as it increases the employee’s skills and knowledge of the safety procedures and protocols necessary to keep them safe during work.  Inspections Regular inspection helps to ensure that all processes, machineries, and equipment are safe to use and are that substances are properly kept to ensure the safety of employees.  Corrective Actions Corrective actions help condition the employees to work safely and promote safety within the workplace. Corresponding penalties may be imposed for non-compliance of safety procedures and protocols.  Standards Standards help to determine whether a certain employee (those exhibiting below standard performance) needs stricter supervision or other employees (those meeting or exceeding the standard performance) do not. This allows employers to know who needs to be supervised and who can be allowed to work with minimal supervision to ensure that safety is imposed equally and as necessary. How do we use it? Much like the Human Factors Theory, the Accident/Incident theory is useful for labor intensive infrastructures including small scale industries that rely less on capital investments and larger

scale industries that comprise of many employees. The model differentiates itself from the Human Factors Theory because it assesses the psychological/internal factors that contribute to human error. One such example of using the Accident/Incident Theory is when employers invest in ergonomic office furniture to promote the long-term health and well-being of their employees. It is a more comprehensive and expanded approach since it discusses contributing factors on both the employee and the employer’s end.

Epidemiological theory What is the Epidemiological Theory? The epidemiological theory of accident causation suggests that the approach of studying the risk of disease is similar to studying the risk of accidents in the industry. The theory identifies the host, the agent, and the vehicles wherein the host is the person who is injured, the agent is the injury suffered, and the vehicle is the enabler of the cause for this injury. The agents often come in the form of uncontrolled or insufficient energy originating from either mechanical, chemical, thermal, electrical, or ionizing radiation. The vehicles determine how the agents was released or enabled which may include but are not limited to damaged equipment or machine parts, nonadherence to safety protocol, or unmet expectation of space. The behavioral aspect of epidemiological theory discusses two key components including: 1) Predisposition characteristics These are the workers’ natural traits which may help predict tendencies towards risky behavior. 2) Situational characteristics These are factors involving the workplace environment such as pressures from supervisors or peers, poor company culture, and more. How do we use it? The epidemiological theory is useful because it acknowledges that accidents are caused by the interaction of the three variables: host, agent, and vehicles. However, this theory does not provide which types of the three variables are most susceptible to accidents thereby leaving it up to the investigator or researcher to blindly wait for the accident to occur. Attempts have been made to adapt this approach including categorizing by agent (severity of damage) and categorizing the vehicles including mechanical, electrical, or radiant energy. The epidemiological theory is useful in identifying the characteristics of the person-hosts and the environment that promotes accidents and is also useful for investigation in small and large scale industries. Systems theory

What is the Systems Theory? The Systems Theory Model proposes how accidents are a result of failure in coordination of three systems (man, machine and environment) and that regular risk assessments of the cumulative risks during the interaction of the three systems will help give insight on appropriate safety protocols and procedures. The Systems Theory determines two accident prevention strategies including: 1. Reliable production planning which eliminates the unpredictability of tasks 2. Error management which prevents, isolates, and corrects errors in the system. How do we use it? The Systems Theory Model is useful in investigating incidents due to the discussion of the interaction among systems including the workers and the machines/environments. It determines the characteristic of a normal and non-normal state in the processing thereby allowing detection in changes in the patterns of interaction that may increase or decrease the likelihood of an accident happening and in turn helps gain a better insight of the production system factors that affect the frequency of accident and helps develop strategies to reduce the likelihood of accidents.

Combination Theory What is the Combination Theory? The combination theory of accident causation proposes that not a single model or theory is universal in explaining or forecasting the occurrences of all accidents and that there is a need to combine and adapt theories to fit the occupation to be studied or investigated[ CITATION Dav10 \l 1033 ]. How do we use it? The combination theory is useful as it acknowledges the reality that the preceding theories and models are not exactly one hundred percent applicable for all situations. Instead, combining theories and approaches as necessary is a better way of gaining more realistic insights to preventive measures and corrective actions for safety management.

Conclusion Accident causation is highly complex however, to ensure effective safety management, there is a need to understand the root causes of accidents adequately. This helps improve detection of

potential accidents and thereby improves the developed accident prevention approaches. At present, theories of accident causation are conceptual in nature and therefore are often used for theoretical studies or modeling. However, modern adaptations of these theories and approaches have allowed industrial firms to use these concepts in application to prevent and control accidents. Even with the diversity of existing theories today, there is not one single theory that is considered right or wrong or is universally applicable to all scenarios. Instead, combinations of these theories are useful for depicting a more realistic scenario for development of preventive measures or corrective actions in safety management. Nonetheless, each theory is useful as foundation for understanding the root causes accidents. The domino theory has proven adaptable and useful as a starting point in understanding how accidents occur in theory. The Human Factors and Accident/Incident Theory are both useful for labor intensive infrastructures including small scale industries that rely less on capital investments and larger scale industries that comprise of many employees. They both discuss the nature and causes of human error whereas the Human Factors discusses both internal and external factors that contribute to human error while the Accident/Incident Theory focuses on the internal factors including the psychological and mental state of the employees. The Systems Theory Model is also useful as it determines the characteristic of a normal and nonnormal state in the processing thereby allowing detection in changes in the patterns of interaction that may increase or decrease the likelihood of an accident happening. This helps us gain insight on factors that affect the frequency of accident and helps develop strategies to reduce the occurrence of these accidents. In conclusion, much like the use of the Combination Theory, a combination of theories will prove most fit for different industries depending on the organization’s traits, nature/risk levels of work, and the potential causes of these accidents....