Exam Review sheet 3 PDF

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Review Notes for Exam 3. Teacher is Larry Nelson....

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Exam 3 Review Sheet Chapter 9: Language Development 1. Definition of semantics, grammar and phonology

Semantics: vocabulary-words and word combinations for concepts Grammar: syntax-rules for sentences Morphology: grammatical markers Phonology: rules about structure and sequence of speech sounds 2. Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device as well as language areas in the brain Broca’s Area: language structure located in frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex that controls language production Wernicke’s Area: language structure located in temporal lobe of left hemisphere of cerebral cortex that is responsible for interpreting language 3. Behaviorist perspective on language (i.e., imitation and reinforcement) Learned through operant conditioning (reinforcement) and imitation 4. Interactionist Theory: Definition, Joint attention and the importance of linguistic interaction during the first months of life Definition: inner capacities and environment work together; social context is important Joint attention: a state in which two conversational partners attend to the same object or event Linguistic interaction is very important. Relies heavily on parent because it is stressful for child if they are in joint attendee situation. 5. Effects of bilingualism on children, and the easiest time to learn a second language Effects:  Better analytical reasoning  Improved concept formation  Greater cognitive flexibility  Enhanced reading achievement Best time to learn is with your first, before puberty. 6. Common language errors children make including: overextension, underextension, and overregularization Overextension: a word is applied too broadly, to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate Underextension: a word is applied too narrowly, to a smaller number of objects and events than is appropriate Overregularization: application of regular grammatical rules to words that are exceptions 7. Language development strategies including: coining, telegraphic speech, syntactic bootstrapping, metaphors, and fast-mapping Telegraphic speech: children’s two-word utterances that, like a telegram, leave out smaller and less important words Fast-mapping: connecting a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter Coining: fill in for words they have not learned yet by coining new words based on ones they know. “plant-man” for gardener, or “crayoner” for a child using crayons. Syntactic bootstrapping: preschoolers discover many word meanings by observing how words are used in syntax, or the structure of sentences Metaphors: involve concrete, sensory comparisons. “Clouds are pillows”. 8. The relationship between a child’s language comprehension and production (i.e., what they can understand vs. what they can say) Comprehension develops ahead of production.

9. Grammar Development: Adult Repetitions vs. Adult Recasts vs. Adult Expansions (i.e., what are they, which is more effective, etc.) Recasts: adult responses that restructure a child’s grammatically incorrect speech into correct form Expansions: adult responses that elaborate on a child’s utterance, increasing its complexity. Most effective. Repetition: repeat what child says, child will keep saying it the wrong way. Expansions and recasts are both effective. 10. Referential and Expressive styles of language Referential: toddlers use language mainly to label objects Expressive: toddlers use mainly to talk about feelings and needs of themselves and other people. Chapter 10: Emotional Development 1. Functions and definition of emotion

Emotion: expression of readiness to establish, maintain, or change one’s relation to the environment on a matter of personal importance. Effects on cognition:  lead to learning essential for survival  can impair learning Social:  affect behavior of others  regulate own behavior Health  influence well-being, growth  stress related to diseases 2. Infant emotion: Measuring infant emotion and which emotions are present at birth Most researchers rely on facial expressions, although vocalizations and body movements provide some information. At birth: attraction to pleasant stimulation and withdrawal from unpleasant emotion 3. Understand emotional self-regulation, emotional display rules, and social referencing Emotional self-regulation: the strategies for adjusting our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals Emotional display rules: rules that specify when, where, and how it is appropriate to express emotions. Differs by society. Social referencing: seeking emotional information from caregivers in uncertain situations. 4. Definition and types of temperament: easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up, inhibited/uninhibited children (percent) Temperament: stable individual differences in quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention, and emotional self-regulation Easy (40%): a child whose temperament of such is that he quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences Difficult (10%): a child whose tempermant is such that she is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely Slow-to-warm up (15%): a child whose temperament is such that she reacts negatively to and withdraws from novel stimuli 5. Definition of the Goodness-of-fit model Goodness-of-fit: Thomas and Chess’ model, which states that an effective match, or “good fit”, between child-rearing practices and a child’s temperament leads to favorable development and

psychological adjustment. When a “poor fit” exists, the outcome is distorted development and maladjustment. 6. Definition and categories of Attachment (i.e., secure, avoidant, resistant, and disorganized/disoriented attachment) and what type of parenting promotes secure vs. insecure attachment. Attachment: strong affectional tie that humans feel toward special people in their lives Secure (60%): infants who are distressed by parental separation and easily comforted by the parent when she returns Avoidant (15%): infants who are usually not distressed by parental separation and who avoid the parent when she returns Resistant (10%): infants who remain close to the parent before departure and display angry, resistive behavior when she returns Disorganized/disoriented (15%): infants who respond in a condused, contradictory fashion when reunited with the parent Sensitive caregiving is related to secure attachment. Interactional synchrony characterizes the experiences of securely attached babies in Western culture. 7. Stages of attachment (Bowlby’s Ethological Theory): preattachment, attachment-in-themaking, clear-cut attachment, and formation of a reciprocal relationship phases Preattachment (birth to 6 wks): built-in signals (grasping, smiling, crying) that help bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans. Babies recognize own mother’s smell, voice, and face but are not yet attached and do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult. Attachment-in the-making (6 wks to 8 mo): Responds differently to a familiar caregiver than a stranger. Develop a sense of trust that caregiver will respond when signaled. Do not protest when separated from caregiver. Clear-cut attachment (6 mo-2 yrs): Attachment to caregiver is evident, and display separation anxiety. Understand that caregiver continues to exist even when not in view. Try hard to maintain in caregiver’s presence and use her as a secure base. Formation of reciprocal relationship (18 mo+): Child understands that parents will return, and uses persuasion to alter goals. Can withstand absence of parents. 8. The following terms related to attachment: Strange Situation, a secure base, separation anxiety, internal working model Strange situation: a procedure involving short seperations from and reunions with the parent that assesses the quality of attachment bonds Separation anxiety: an infant’s distressed reaction to the departure of the familiar caregiver Internal working model: set of expectations derived from early care giving experiences concerning the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and the self’s interaction with those figures that affect all future close relationships. Secure base: infants use familiar caregiver as a point from which to explore, venturing into the environment and then returning for emotional support. (Used in approach/avoidance video). Clear-cut-attachment phase. 9. Relationship between child care and the emotional security and attachment of young children Quality of care is crucially important. Spending many hours in poor-quality child care, especially with other risk factors, predicts insecure attachment. When settings meet professionally accepted standards for developmentally appropriate practice, children’s learning opportunities and warmth of caregivers are high. Good child care can serve as effective early intervention for children whose development is at risk.

Children in daycare can form a secure attachment to a caregiver as long as the day care is of high quality. Chapter 11: Self and Social Understanding 1. Understand the difference between I-self and me-self

I (existential)-self: sense of self as knower and actor. The part that initiates, organizes, and interprets

experience. Includes:  self-awareness: the self is separate from the surrounding world and has a private, inner life not accessible to others.  Self-continuity: the self remains the same person over time.  Self-coherence: the self is a single, consistent, bounded entity  Self-agency: the self controls its own thoughts and actions  Self-recognition: perception of the self as a separate being, distinct from people and objections in the surrounding world Me (reflective observer)- the part that treats the self as an object of knowledge and evaluation by sizing up its diverse attributes. It consists of all qualities that make the self unique-material characteristics, such as physical appearance and possessions; mental characteristics, including desires, attitudes, beliefs, and thought processes; and social characteristics, such as personality traits, roles, and relationships with others. 2. Understand Self-concept, self-recognition, inner self, and remembered self Self-concept: the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is. Inner self : consists of private thoughts and imaginings Remembered self: autobiographical self that comes from adult-child conversations about past. Gives a more coherent portrait than is offered by the isolated, episodic memories of the first few years. Occurs best when child participates in personal storytelling 3. Types of descriptions preschoolers give about themselves Observable characteristics, typical emotions and attitudes 4. Definition of and changes in self-esteem over time (i.e., childhood, adolescence, gender differences etc.) Self-esteem: judgments we make about our own worth and feelings about those judgments.

Childhood- They are the best at everything. If they come in last from a classroom race, they will still answer they think they are the fastest in the class. Declines over first few years of elementary school as they start to make social comparisons. Rises from fourth grade on. Adolescence- “Audience” much thought on how peers view them. Individual differences in self-esteem and who they look to for self-esteem become increasingly stable. Gender Differences- by adolescence, girls feel less confident about their physical appearance and athletic abilities. In overall self-esteem, a widely held assumption is that boys’ overall sense of self-esteem is higher than girls’. Girls may think less of themselves because they internalize negative cultural messages. (pg. 463) 5. Definition, influences on, and application of the following concepts: Achievement motivation, learned helplessness, incremental vs. entity view of ability, and mastery-oriented attributions Learned helplessness: attribute failure to ability, entity view of ability (cannot be changed), focus on performance goals Mastery-oriented: attribute success to ability, incremental view of ability (can improve by trying), focus on learning goals Achievement motivation: the tendency to persist at challenging tasks. Predicts school achievement. 6. Definition and characteristics of those with high self-esteem (p. 463)

High self esteem is having positive judgements about our own worth. People with high self esteem in academics generally exert more effort and achieve more. People with high social self esteem are generally more liked by peers. Overall, individuals with high self esteem are well-adjusted, sociable, and conscientious. Chapter 12: Moral Development 1. Know Freud’s view on morality

Freud: psychoanalytic. Superego and guilt. Morality emerges between ages 3 and 6, when Oedipus and Electra conflicts are resolved with superego. Child adopts moral standards of same-sex parent and redirects hostile impulses toward the self in the form of guilt. Moral development complete by age 5-6. 2. Understand these concepts from Piaget: construction, realism, reciprocity, heteronomous morality, autonomous morality Heteronomous morality: Piaget’s first stage of moral development, in which children view rules as handed down by authorities, as having a permanent existeance, as unchangeable, and as requiring strict obedience. Realism: a view of rules as external features of reality rather than as cooperative principles that can be modified at will. Autonomous morality: Piaget’s second stage of moral development, in which children view rules as flexible, socially agreed-on principles that can be revised to suit the will of the majority. Ideal reciprocity: a standard of fairness based on mutuality of expectations, in which individuals express the same concern for the welfare of others as they would have others grant to them. Captured by the Golden Rule. Construction: actively attending to and interrelating multiple perspectives on situations in which social conflicts arise and thereby attaining new moral understandings. 3. Know Kohlberg’s stages of Moral Development (Pre-conventional, conventional and postconventional), including the substages and the Heinz dilemma Heinz dilemma: Man steals drug to save his wife’s life. Pre-conventional: 1st level in which moral understanding is based on rewards, punishment, and the power of authority figures. Stage 1: the punishment and obedience orientation. Fear of authority and avoidance of punishment. “He shouldn’t steal the drug b/c the police will look for him.” Stage 2: the instrumental purpose orientation. Right is what satisfies a need. Selfinterest. “I would steal it, so I would have a wife. If she died, who would cook my dinner?” Conventional: 2nd level in which moral understanding is based on conforming to social rules to ensure positive human relationships at societal order. Stage 3: the “good boy-good girl” orientation. That which is right maintains affection and approval from family and friends. “He should steal the drug so everyone will think he is a good husband.” “He shouldn’t steal it because he doesn’t want to be known as a criminal”. Stage 4: the social-order-maintaining orientation. Every member has a duty to contribute (not love, but responsibility). “I have a responsibility to take care of my wife, so I must steal the drug to save her.” Post-conventional: highest level in which morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. Young children don’t reason at this level b/c it is too abstract. Stage 5: the social-contract orientation. Rules and laws are seen as flexible instruments for furthering human purposes. “I will be forgiven for stealing, because the law was made to protect people from being harmed. In this case, the law would be causing harm so the law doesn’t apply.” “You would be harming the pharmacist by stealing the drug”. Stage 6: the universal ethical principle orientation. Self chosen ethical principles of conscious valid for all humanity regardless of law and social agreement. It’s internalize by you, you chose it. “Even if there is a law that says abortion is okay, I believe that it is wrong and everyone has a right to life”. 4. Understand Distributive justice Distributive justice: beliefs about how to divide material goods fairly 5. Understand concepts from Turiel’s Domain Theory: Moral Domain, Social Conventional Domain, Personal Domain

Moral: standards that protect people’s rights and welfare (hitting, stealing, etc.) Social Conventions: customs determined soley by consensus such as table manners, dress styles, and rituals, of social interaction. Personal: concerns that do not violate rights or harm others, are not socially regulated and therefore are up to the individual (choosing friends, clothing, etc). Chapter 13: Development of Sex-Related Differences and Gender Roles 1. Know the concepts related to: gender assignment gender identity, gender roles, gender stereotyping (including the extent to which they are or are not true), gender typing, gender stereotyping flexibility (and changes with age)

Gender assignment: based on assessment of biological sex; includes gender roles, prescribed behaviors and expectations for behavior Gender identity: someone’s internal sense of whether they are a man or woman Gender roles: the reflection of gender stereotypes in everyday behavior Gender stereotypes: widely held beliefs about characteristics deemed appropriate for males and females Gender typing: the association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with biological sex in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes of gender and, therefore, encompasses all the gender-linked responses. Gender stereotyping flexibility: belief that both genders can display a gender-stereotyped personality trait or activity 2. Parents and gender discrimination. Understand gender identity and associated concepts: Androgyny, and gender constancy, (mastered in stages: gender labeling, gender stability, gender consistency, and gender intensification) Gender identity: perception of onself as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. Androgyny: scoring high on both masculine and feminine personality characteristics. Gender intensification: increased gender stereotyping of attitudes and behavior, and movement toward a more traditional gender identity. (according to one hypothesis, this accompanies arrival of adolescence.) Gender constancy: the understanding that gender remains the same even if clothing, hairstyles, and play activities change. Gender labeling (3-4 yrs): first stage. Preschoolers can label the gender of themselves and others correctly. Gender stability (4-5 yrs): second stage. Preschoolers have a partial understanding of the permanence of gender. They grasp its stability over time. Gender consistency (6-7 yrs): Final stage. Children master gender constancy. Parents reinforce gender-appropriate play activities and behaviors early on. In middle childhood, parents demand higher achievement from boys. Fathers tend to differentiate between boys and girls more than mothers. 3. Know actual gender differences versus gender stereotypes (see Powerpoint slides).

ACTUAL DIFFERENCES Physical, motor, and sensory  Girls are more physically and neurologically advanced  Girls walk earlier, reach puberty earlier  Boys are more muscular at birth, have larger hearts and lungs, and are less sensitive to pain than girls  With age, males become more superior at activities involving strength and gross motorl skills  Males are more likely to be miscarried, and are more vulnerable to hereditary abnormalities  Females tend to live 6 yrs longer than men  On average, males grow to be 10% taller than females

Cognitive  Female brains are smaller than male brains but have more folds to allow more brain surface tissue.  From infancy, girls display superior verbal ability  During middle childhood, these gender differences are very small (boys catch up)  From about age 10, boys display greater visual-spatial ability, such as reading ...