Fox's Human Physiology 12th Edition PDF

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T W ELF TH EDITION Stuart Ira Fox Pierce College TM fox78119_fm_i-xxii.indd i 22/07/10 5:43 PM HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY, TWELFTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Compani...

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T W ELF TH EDITION

Stuart Ira Fox Pierce College

TM

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HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY, TWELFTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2009, 2008, and 2006. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 ISBN 978–0–07–337811–4 MHID 0–07–337811–9 Vice President, Editor-in-Chief: Marty Lange Vice President, EDP: Kimberly Meriwether David Senior Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts Executive Editor: Colin H. Wheatley Senior Developmental Editor: Kathleen R. Loewenberg Marketing Manager: Denise M. Massar Project Coordinator: Mary Jane Lampe Buyer II: Sherry L. Kane Senior Media Project Manager: Christina Nelson Senior Designer: Laurie B. Janssen Cover Illustration: ©2009 William B. Westwood, all rights reserved Senior Photo Research Coordinator: John C. Leland Photo Research: David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC Compositor: Electronic Publishing Services Inc., NYC Typeface: 10/12 ITC Slimbach Std Printer: R. R. Donnelley All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fox, Stuart Ira. Human physiology / Stuart Ira Fox. — 12th ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978–0–07–337811–4—ISBN 0–07–337811–9 (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Human physiology—Textbooks. I. Title. QP34.5.F68 2011 612—dc22 2010010420

www.mhhe.com

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Brief Contents | The Study of Body Function 1 2 | Chemical Composition of the Body 24 3 | Cell Structure and Genetic Control 50 4 | Enzymes and Energy 87 5 | Cell Respiration and Metabolism 105 6 | Interactions Between Cells and the 1

Extracellular Environment

7

128

| The Nervous System: Neurons and Synapses

160

| The Central Nervous System 203 9 | The Autonomic Nervous System 239 10 | Sensory Physiology 263 11 | Endocrine Glands: Secretion and 8

Action of Hormones

12

311

| Blood, Heart, and Circulation 400 14 | Cardiac Output, Blood Flow, and 13

Blood Pressure

444

| The Immune System 486 16 | Respiratory Physiology 524 17 | Physiology of the Kidneys 574 18 | The Digestive System 612 19 | Regulation of Metabolism 654 20 | Reproduction 694 15

Appendix Answers to Test Your Knowledge Questions

Glossary Credits Index

A-1

G-1 C-1

I-1

| Muscle: Mechanisms of Contraction and Neural Control

355

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About the Author

Stuart Ira Fox,

earned a Ph.D. in human

physiology from the Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, at the University of Southern California, after earning degrees at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA); California State University, Los Angeles; and UC Santa Barbara. He has spent most of his professional life teaching at Los Angeles City College; California State University, Northridge; and Pierce College, where he has won numerous teaching awards, including several Golden Apples. Stuart has authored thirty-six editions of seven textbooks, which are used worldwide and have been translated into several languages. When not engaged in professional activities, he likes to hike, fly fish, and cross-country ski in the Sierra Nevada Mountains.

o the memory of my mentors—Louis Stearns, Susan Shimizu, Robert Lyon, Ed Jaffe, Russ Wisner, and others— in the hopes that readers of this textbook will also find people who help guide their journeys toward yet unimagined goals.

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Preface I wrote the first edition of Human Physiology to provide my students with a readable textbook to support the lecture material and help them understand physiology concepts they would need later in their health curricula and professions. This approach turned out to have very wide appeal, which afforded me the opportunity to refine and update the text with each new edition. Writing new editions is a challenging educational experience, and an activity I find immensely enjoyable. Although changes have occurred in the scientific understanding and applications of physiological concepts, the students using this twelfth edition have the same needs as those who used the first, and so my writing goals have remained the same. I am thankful for the privilege of being able to serve students and their instructors through these twelve editions of Human Physiology. —Stuart Ira Fox

basic biology and chemistry (chapters 2–5) before delving into more complex physiological processes. This approach is  appreciated by both instructors and students; specific references in later chapters direct readers back to the foundational material as needed, presenting a self-contained study of human physiology. In addition to not presupposing student’s preparedness, this popular textbook is known for its clear and approachable writing style, detailed realistic art, and unsurpassed clinical information.

Features

The words in Human Physiology, twelfth edition, read as if the author is explaining concepts to you in a one-on-one conversation, pausing now and then to check and make sure you understand what he is saying. Each major section begins with a short overview of the information to follow. Numerous comparisons (“Unlike the life of an organism, which can be viewed as a linear progression from birth to death, the life of a cell follows a cyclical pattern”), examples (“A callus on the hand, for example, involves thickening of the skin by hyperplasia due to frequent abrasion”), reminders (“Recall that each member of a homologous pair came from a different parent”), and analogies (“In addition to this ‘shuffling of the deck’ of chromosomes . . .”) lend the author’s style a comfortable grace that enables readers to easily flow from one topic to the next.

What Sets This Book Apart? The study of human physiology provides the scientific foundation for the field of medicine and all other professions related to human health and physical performance. The scope of topics included in a human physiology course is therefore wideranging, yet each topic must be covered in sufficient detail to provide a firm basis for future expansion and application. The rigor of this course, however, need not diminish the student’s initial fascination with how the body works. On the contrary, a basic understanding of physiological mechanisms can instill a deeper appreciation for the complexity and beauty of the human body and motivate students to continue learning more.

The rigor of this course, however, need not “diminish the student’s initial fascination with how the body works. On the contrary, a basic understanding of physiological mechanisms can instill a deeper appreciation for the complexity and beauty of the human body and motivate students to continue learning more.

” —Stuart Fox

Human Physiology, twelfth edition, is written for the undergraduate introductory human physiology course. Based on the author’s extensive experience with teaching this course, the framework of the textbook is designed to provide

What Makes This Text a Market Leader? Writing Style—Easygoing, Logical, and Concise

Exceptional Art—Designed from the Student’s Point of View What better way to support such unparalleled writing than with high-quality art? Large, bright illustrations demonstrate the physiological processes of the human body beautifully in a variety of ways:

provides excellent figures and illustrations “andFoxis ahead of all others in creativity and usability for instructors.” —Vikki McCleary, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences v

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Preface

Stepped-out art clearly depicts various stages or movements with numbered explanations.

Lumen of kidney tubule

Glucose

Apical membrane

Na+

Labeled photos placed side by side with illustrations allow diagrammatic detail and realistic application. Clearly labeled atlas-quality cadaver images of dissected human cadavers provide detailed views of anatomical structures, capturing the intangible characteristics of actual human anatomy that can be appreciated only when viewed in human specimens.

Cotransport

1

Basolateral membrane Proximal tubule cell ATP

ADP K

3

+

Facilitated diffusion

Macro-to-micro art helps student put context around detailed concepts.

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in Fox’s Physiology are by far “theThebest.illustrations They are very detailed and accurate.” —Nida Sehweil-Elmuti,

Simple diffusion

Primary active transport

Eastern Illinois University Glucose

Capillary K+

Clinical Applications—No Other Human Physiology Text Has More!

Na+

book is very visually pleasing. The layout “is This clear and highlighted areas emphasize key  concepts. I particularly like the use of photomicrographs, in addition to schematic illustrations, to give students an idea of how a structure actually looks, e.g., Fig. 8.17 (dendritic spines) and Fig. 10.33 (lens).

”

—Phyllis Callahan, Miami University (Ohio)

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Clinical Application Boxes These in-depth boxed essays explore relevant topics of clinical interest and are placed at key points in the chapter to support the CLINICAL APPLICATION surrounding Many drugs act on the RAS to promote either sleep or wakematerial. fulness. Amphetamines, for example, enhance dopamine action by inhibiting the dopamine reuptake transporter, thereby Subjects covered inhibiting the ability of presynaptic axons to remove dopamine from the synaptic cleft. This increases the effectiveness of the include monoamine-releasing neurons of the RAS, enhancing arousal. The antihistamine Benadryl, which can cross the blood-brain pathologies, barrier, causes drowsiness by inhibiting histamine-releasing neurons of the RAS. (The antihistamines that don’t cause current drowsiness, such as Claritin, cannot cross the blood-brain barrier.) Drowsiness caused by the benzodiazepines (such as research, Valium), barbiturates, alcohol, and most anesthetic gases is due to the ability of these agents to enhance the activity of pharmacology, GABA receptors. Increased ability of GABA to inhibit the RAS then reduces arousal and promotes sleepiness. and a variety of clinical diseases.

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“

The clarity of the explanations is superb. The Clinical boxes are excellent introductions to future material in the text and its medical relevance. They draw the student into the drier, more theoretical material by giving it physiological meaning.

”

—Gail Sabbadini, San Diego State University

Case Investigation Jason, a 19-year-old college student, goes to the doctor complaining of chronic fatigue. The doctor palpates (feels) Jason’s radial pulse, and comments that it is fast and weak. He orders various tests, including an echocardiogram, an electrocardiogram, and later an angiogram. He also requests that particular blood tests be performed. Some of the new terms and concepts you will encounter include: ■ ■ ■ ■

Red blood cell count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit measurements and anemia Ventricular septal defect and mitral stenosis ECG waves and sinus tachycardia LDL cholesterol and atherosclerosis

Case Investigation CLUES Jason’s blood tests reveal that he has a low red blood cell count, hematocrit, and hemoglobin concentration. ■ ■

What condition do these tests indicate? How could this contribute to Jason’s chronic fatigue?

Fitness Application Boxes These readings explore physiological principles as applied to well-being, sports FITNESS APPLICATION medicine, exercise Interestingly, the blood contributed by contraction of the atria physiology, and does not appear to be essential for life. Elderly people who have atrial fibrillation (a condition in which the atria fail to aging. They are also contract) can live for many years. People with atrial fibrillation, however, become fatigued more easily during exercise placed at relevant because the reduced filling of the ventricles compromises the ability of the heart to sufficiently increase its output during points in the text to exercise. (Cardiac output and blood flow during rest and exercise are discussed in chapter 14.) highlight concepts just covered in the chapter. Chapter-Opening Clinical Case Investigations, Clues, and Summaries These diagnostic clinical case studies open every chapter with intriguing scenarios based on physiological concepts covered in that particular chapter. Clues to the case are given at key points where applicable material is discussed, and the case is finally resolved at the end of the chapter. Clinical Relevance Woven into Every Chapter The framework of this textbook is based on integrating clinically germane information with knowledge of the body’s physiological processes. Examples of this abound throughout the book. For example, in a clinical setting we record electrical activity from the body: this includes action potentials (chapter 7, section 7.2); EEG (chapter 8, section 8.2); and ECG (chapter 13, section 13.5). We also record mechanical force in muscle contractions (chapter 12, section 12.3). We note blood plasma measurements of many chemicals to assess internal body conditions. These include measurements of blood glucose (chapter 1, section 1.2) and the oral glucose tolerance test (chapter 19, section 19.4); and measurements of the blood cholesterol profile (chapter 13, section 13.7). These are just a few of many examples the author includes that focus on the connections between the study of physiology and our health industry.

Case Investigation SUMMARY Jason has anemia, and the reduced delivery of oxygen to his tissues probably contributed to his chronic fatigue. He also has a heart murmur due to the ventricular septal defect and mitral stenosis, which were probably congenital. These conditions could reduce the amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle through the systemic arteries, and thus weaken his pulse. The reduced blood flow and consequent reduced oxygen delivery to the tissues could be the cause of his chronic fatigue. The lowered volume of blood pumped by the left ventricle could cause a reflex increase in the heart rate, as detected by his rapid pulse and the ECG tracing showing sinus tachycardia. Jason’s high blood cholesterol is probably unrelated to his symptoms. This condition could be dangerous, however, as it increases his risk for atherosclerosis. Jason should therefore be placed on a special diet, and perhaps medication, to lower his blood cholesterol.

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is an excellent text with a clinical orientation “thatThismakes discussion of disease processes and pathophysiology easy.” —John E. Lopes, Jr., Central Michigan University

Systems Interactions pages These special pages appear at the end of all of the systems chapters and list the many ways a major concept applies to the study of different body systems, in addition to how a given system interacts with other body systems. Each application or interaction includes a page reference.

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Incomparable Instructor and Student Resources—Making Teaching Easier and Learning Smarter! New! In-text Learning Outcomes and Assessment Questions are also tied to Connect Course Management System. New! Connect Course Management system, with additional, all-new, interactive Case Investigations, allows instructors to customize, deliver, and track assignments and tests easily online. Anatomy and Physiology | REVEALED® features “meltaway” dissection of real cadavers and new physiology content. Lecture Power Point presentations feature embedded animations Text-specific Instructor’s Manual offers additional guidance. Customizable Testbank makes testing easier. New! Access to media-rich e-Book allows students more freedom.

Twelfth Edition Changes What’s New? Human Physiology, twelfth edition, incorporates a number of new and recently modified physiological concepts. This may surprise people who are unfamiliar with the subject; the author is indeed, sometimes asked if the field really changes much from one edition to the next. It does; that’s one of the reasons physiology is so much fun to study. Stuart has tried to impart this sense of excitement and fun in the book by indicating, in a manner appropriate for this level of student, where knowledge is new and where gaps in our knowledge remain. The list that follows indicates only the larger areas of text and figure revisions and updates. It doesn’t indicate instances where passages were rewritten to improve the clarity or accuracy of the existing material, or smaller changes made in response to information from recently published journals and from the reviewers of the previous edition. Global Changes: Addition of Learning Outcomes for each major section in all chapters. All A-heads are now numbered for ease of assigning readings and for referencing. Checkpoint assess questions are now tied to learning outcomes. Chapter cross-references are now specific to numbered A-head sections.

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Chapter 1: The Study of Body Function Revised discussion of negative feedback loops. Updated discussion of drug development. Legends expanded and revised in figures 1.5 and 1.6. Chapter 2: Chemical Composition of the Body Revised discussion of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis. New discussion of amphipathic molecules and revised discussion of micelle formation. Expanded discussions of prostaglandins and nucleotides. Chapter 3: Cell Structure and Genetic Control Expanded discussion of mitochondria and mitochondrial inheritance. New discussion of retrograde transport and the Golgi complex. Revised description of RNA polymerase action. Updated and expanded explanation of RNA interference and microRNA. Updated discussion of alternative splicing of exons. Updated and expanded explanation of tRNA action. Revised description of cyclins. Updated and expanded descriptions of telomeres and telomerase. Updated and expanded explanation of gene silencing in epigenetic inheritance. Chapter 4: Enzymes and Energy Figure 4.1 revised. New Clinical Applications box on gene therapy. Chapter 5: Cell Respiration and Metabolism Interstitial fluid added to figure 5.1. Legends to figures 5.6 and 5.10 expanded. Table 5.2 completely revised. Updated description of brown adipose tissue. Chapter 6: Interactions Between Cells and the Extracellular Environment Revised description of the different forms of membrane transport. New discussion of mean diffusion time. Revised explanation of plasma osmolality regulation. Updated descriptions of primary and secondary glucose transp...