General chemistry 5th edition PDF

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RAYMOND FIFTH EDITION Problem-Solving Workbook with Solutions ISBN-13: 978-0-07-304852-9 (ISBN-10: 0-07-304852-6) By Brandon J. Cruickshank (Northern Arizona University) and Raymond Chang, this success guide is written for use with General Chemistry. It aims to help students hone their analytical an...

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RAYMOND

FIFTH EDITION

Problem-Solving Workbook with Solutions ISBN-13: 978-0-07-304852-9 (ISBN-10: 0-07-304852-6) By Brandon J. Cruickshank (Northern Arizona University) and Raymond Chang, this success guide is written for use with General Chemistry. It aims to help students hone their analytical and problem-solving skills by presenting detailed approaches to solving chemical problems. Solutions for all of the text’s even-numbered problems are included.

The Essential Concepts

This complete online tutorial, electronic homework, and course management system is designed for greater ease of use than any other system available. ARIS enables instructors to create and share course materials and assignments with colleagues with a few clicks of the mouse. All PowerPoint® lectures, assignments, quizzes, and interactives are directly tied to text-specific materials in General Chemistry, but instructors can edit questions, import their own content, and create announcements and due dates for assignments. ARIS has automatic grading and reporting of easy-to-assign homework, quizzing, and testing. All student activity within McGraw-Hill’s ARIS is automatically recorded and available to the instructor through a fully integrated grade book that can be downloaded to Excel®.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

McGraw-Hill’s ARIS (Assessment Review and Instruction System) for General Chemistry

FIFTH EDITION

GENERAL CHEMISTRY The Essential Concepts

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY

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ABOUT

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COVER

Molecules in the upper atmosphere are constantly being bombarded by high-energy particles from the sun. As a result, these molecules either break up into atoms and/or become ionized. Eventually, the electronically excited species return to the ground state with the emission of light, giving rise to the phenomenon called aurora borealis (in the Northern Hemisphere) or aurora australis (in the Southern Hemisphere).

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Raymond

CHANG Williams College

GENERAL CHEMISTRY The Essential Concepts FIFTH EDITION

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY: THE ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS, FIFTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 0 9 8 7 ISBN 978–0–07–304851–2 MHID 0–07–304851–8 ISBN 978–0–07–304857–4 (Annotated Instructor’s Edition) MHID 0–07–304857–7 Publisher: Thomas D. Timp Senior Sponsoring Editor: Tamara L. Good-Hodge Managing Developmental Editor: Shirley R. Oberbroeckling Marketing Manager: Todd L. Turner Senior Project Manager: Gloria G. Schiesl Senior Production Supervisor: Kara Kudronowicz Lead Media Project Manager: Judi David Lead Media Producer: Daryl Bruflodt Senior Designer: David W. Hash Cover/Ulterior Designer: Jamie E. O’Neal (USE) Cover Image: Northern Lights, ©Daryl Benson/Masterfile Senior Photo Research Coordinator: John Leland Photo Research: Tom Michaels/PhotoFind, LLC Supplement Producer: Mary Jane Lampe Compositor: Techbooks Typeface: 10/12 Times Roman Printer: R. R. Donnelley Willard, OH The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chang, Raymond. General chemistry : the essential concepts / Raymond Chang. – 5th ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978–0–07–304851–2 — ISBN 0–07–304851–8 (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Chemistry–Textbooks. I. Title. QD33.2.C48 2008 540–dc22 2006102621

www.mhhe.com

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Raymond Chang was born in Hong Kong and grew up in Shanghai and Hong Kong, China. He received his B.Sc. degree in chemistry from London University, England, and his Ph.D. in chemistry from Yale University. After doing postdoctoral research at Washington University and teaching for a year at Hunter College of the City University of New York, he joined the chemistry department at Williams College, where he has taught since 1968. Professor Chang has served on the American Chemical Society Examination Committee, the National Chemistry Olympiad Examination Committee, and the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) Committee. He is an editor of The Chemical Educator. Professor Chang has written books on physical chemistry, industrial chemistry, and physical science. He has also coauthored books on the Chinese language, children’s picture books, and a novel for young readers. For relaxation, Professor Chang maintains a forest garden, plays tennis, and practices the violin.

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BRIEF CONTENTS

List of Animations xvii Preface xix A Note to the Student xxvi

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Introduction 1 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 28 Stoichiometry 58 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 94 Gases 132 Energy Relationships in Chemical Reactions 171 The Electronic Structure of Atoms 206 The Periodic Table 245 Chemical Bonding I: The Covalent Bond 279 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 312 Introduction to Organic Chemistry 355 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids 390 Physical Properties of Solutions 425 Chemical Kinetics 454 Chemical Equilibrium 496 Acids and Bases 529 Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria 574 Thermodynamics 610 Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry 642 The Chemistry of Coordination Compounds 684 Nuclear Chemistry 708 Organic Polymers—Synthetic and Natural 739

APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX 3 APPENDIX 4

Units for the Gas Constant A-1 Selected Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25⬚C A-2 Mathematical Operations A-6 The Elements and the Derivation of Their Names and Symbols A-9

Glossary G-1 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems AP-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1

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CONTENTS

LIST OF ANIMATIONS xvii PREFACE xix A NOTE TO THE STUDENT xxvi CHAPTER

1

Introduction 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

The Study of Chemistry 2 The Scientific Method 2 Classifications of Matter 4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter 7 Measurement 8 Handling Numbers 13 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Problems 18 KEY EQUATIONS 22 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 22 KEY WORDS 22 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 23

CHAPTER

2

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 28 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8

The Atomic Theory 29 The Structure of the Atom 30 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes 35 The Periodic Table 36 Molecules and Ions 38 Chemical Formulas 39 Naming Compounds 43 Introduction to Organic Compounds 52 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 52 KEY WORDS 53 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 53

CHAPTER

3

Stoichiometry 58 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Atomic Mass 59 Avogadro’s Number and the Molar Mass of an Element 60 Molecular Mass 64 The Mass Spectrometer 66 Percent Composition of Compounds 67

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3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10

Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas 70 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 73 Amounts of Reactants and Products 77 Limiting Reagents 81 Reaction Yield 83 KEY EQUATIONS 85 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 85 KEY WORDS 86 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 86

CHAPTER

4

Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 94 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

General Properties of Aqueous Solutions 95 Precipitation Reactions 97 Acid-Base Reactions 101 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 106 Concentration of Solutions 114 Solution Stoichiometry 118 KEY EQUATIONS 123 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 123 KEY WORDS 124 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 124

CHAPTER

5

Gases 132 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

Substances That Exist as Gases 133 Pressure of a Gas 134 The Gas Laws 136 The Ideal Gas Equation 142 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 148 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 153 Deviation from Ideal Behavior 159 KEY EQUATIONS 162 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 163 KEY WORDS 163 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 163

CHAPTER

6

Energy Relationships in Chemical Reactions 171 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

The Nature of Energy and Types of Energy 172 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions 173 Introduction to Thermodynamics 174 Enthalpy of Chemical Reactions 180 Calorimetry 185

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6.6

Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction 191 KEY EQUATIONS 197 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 197 KEY WORDS 198 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 198

CHAPTER

7

The Electronic Structure of Atoms 206 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9

From Classical Physics to Quantum Theory 207 The Photoelectric Effect 211 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 212 The Dual Nature of the Electron 217 Quantum Mechanics 219 Quantum Numbers 221 Atomic Orbitals 222 Electron Configuration 226 The Building-Up Principle 233 KEY EQUATIONS 237 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 237 KEY WORDS 238 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 238

CHAPTER

8

The Periodic Table 245 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

Development of the Periodic Table 246 Periodic Classification of the Elements 247 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties 250 Ionization Energy 256 Electron Affinity 259 Variation in Chemical Properties of the Representative Elements 261 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 272 KEY WORDS 272 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 272

CHAPTER

9

Chemical Bonding I: The Covalent Bond 279 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7

Lewis Dot Symbols 280 The Ionic Bond 281 Lattice Energy of Ionic Compounds 283 The Covalent Bond 285 Electronegativity 287 Writing Lewis Structures 291 Formal Charge and Lewis Structures 293

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9.8 9.9 9.10

The Concept of Resonance 296 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 298 Bond Enthalpy 302 KEY EQUATION 305 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 305 KEY WORDS 306 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 306

CHAPTER

10

Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 312 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5

Molecular Geometry 313

10.6

Molecular Orbital Theory 340

Dipole Moments 322 Valence Bond Theory 325 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 328 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and Triple Bonds 337

KEY EQUATIONS 348 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 349 KEY WORDS 349 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 349

CHAPTER

11

Introduction to Organic Chemistry 355 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5

Classes of Organic Compounds 356 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 356 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 370 Chemistry of the Functional Groups 374 Chirality—The Handedness of Molecules 381 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 384 KEY WORDS 384 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 385

CHAPTER

12

Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids 390 12.1

The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids and Solids 391

12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5

Intermolecular Forces 392 Properties of Liquids 398 Crystal Structure 401 Bonding in Solids 405

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12.6 12.7

Phase Changes 408 Phase Diagrams 415 KEY EQUATIONS 417 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 417 KEY WORDS 418 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 418

CHAPTER

13

Physical Properties of Solutions 425 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5

Types of Solutions 426

13.6

Colligative Properties 435

A Molecular View of the Solution Process 426 Concentration Units 429 Effect of Temperature on Solubility 432 Effect of Pressure on the Solubility of Gases 433

KEY EQUATIONS 447 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 447 KEY WORDS 447 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 448

CHAPTER

14

Chemical Kinetics 454 14.1 14.2 14.3

The Rate of a Reaction 455

14.4

Activation Energy and Temperature Dependence of Rate Constants 471

14.5 14.6

Reaction Mechanisms 477

The Rate Laws 459 Relation Between Reactant Concentrations and Time 463

Catalysis 480 KEY EQUATIONS 486 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 487 KEY WORDS 487 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 487

CHAPTER

15

Chemical Equilibrium 496 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4

The Concept of Equilibrium 497 Ways of Expressing Equilibrium Constants 500 What Does the Equilibrium Constant Tell Us? 507 Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium 512 KEY EQUATIONS 519 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 519 KEY WORDS 520 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 520

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CHAPTER

16

Acids and Bases 529 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5

Brønsted Acids and Bases 530

16.6

Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants 551

16.7

The Relationship Between Conjugate Acid-Base Ionization Constants 553

16.8

Molecular Structure and the Strength of Acids 554

16.9 16.10 16.11

Acid-Base Properties of Salts 557

The Acid-Base Properties of Water 531 pH—A Measure of Acidity 533 Strength of Acids and Bases 536 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants 540

Acidic, Basic, and Amphoteric Oxides 563 Lewis Acids and Bases 565 KEY EQUATIONS 567 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 567 KEY WORDS 567 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 568

CHAPTER

17

Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria 574 17.1

Homogeneous Versus Heterogeneous Solution Equilibria 575

17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8

Buffer Solutions 575 A Closer Look at Acid-Base Titrations 580 Acid-Base Indicators 586 Solubility Equilibria 589 The Common Ion Effect and Solubility 596 Complex Ion Equilibria and Solubility 597 Application of the Solubility Product Principle to Qualitative Analysis 600 KEY EQUATIONS 603 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 603 KEY WORDS 603 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 604

CHAPTER

18

Thermodynamics 610 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4

The Three Laws of Thermodynamics 611 Spontaneous Processes 611 Entropy 612 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 617

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18.5 18.6 18.7

Gibbs Free Energy 622 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium 629 Thermodynamics in Living Systems 632 KEY EQUATIONS 634 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 635 KEY WORDS 635 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 635

CHAPTER

19

Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry 642 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9

Redox Reactions 643 Galvanic Cells 646 Standard Reduction Potentials 648 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions 654 The Effect of Concentration on Cell Emf 657 Batteries 661 Corrosion 665 Electrolysis 668 Electrometallurgy 673 KEY EQUATIONS 674 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 675 KEY WORDS 675 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 675

CHAPTER

20

The Chemistry of Coordination Compounds 684 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4

Properties of the Transition Metals 685

20.5 20.6

Reactions of Coordination Compounds 701

Coordination Compounds 688 Geometry of Coordination Compounds 693 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field Theory 695 Coordination Compounds in Living Systems 702 KEY EQUATION 703 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 703 KEY WORDS 704 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 704

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CHAPTER

21

Nuclear Chemistry 708 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8

The Nature of Nuclear Reactions 709 Nuclear Stability 711 Natural Radioactivity 716 Nuclear Transmutation 720 Nuclear Fission 722 Nuclear Fusion 727 Uses of Isotopes 729 Biological Effects of Radiation 732 KEY EQUATIONS 733 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 733 KEY WORDS 734 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 734

CHAPTER

22

Organic Polymers—Synthetic and Natural 739 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4

Properties of Polymers 740 Synthetic Organic Polymers 740 Proteins 744 Nucleic Acids 752 SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS 754 KEY WORDS 755 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 755

APPENDIX 1 Units for the Gas Constant A-1 APPENDIX 2 Selected Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25⬚C A-2 APPENDIX 3 Mathematical Operations A-6 APPENDIX 4 The Elements and the Derivation of Their Names and Symbols A-9 GLOSSARY G-1 ANSWERS TO EVEN-NUMBERED PROBLEMS AP-1 CREDITS C-1 INDEX I-1

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LIST OF ANIMATIONS

The animations below are correlated to General Chemistry within each chapter in two ways. The first is the Interactive Activity Summary found in the opening pages of every chapter. Then within the chapter are icons informing the student and instructor that an animation is available for a specific topic and where to find the animation for viewing on our Chang General Chemistry ARIS website. For the instructor, the animations are also available on the Chemis...