Generalizability PDF

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Notes on Generalizability...

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September 7th, 2019

1. Generalizability a. whether it is possible to assume that the patterns and relationships observed among the sample in the research study would also hold true for the broader population. b. finding patterns in population increases c. seeing the patterns in everyday analyses. d. seeing the US’s population and how it has fluctuated since 1951.

2. Causation- “Indicates that one event is the result of the occurrence of the other event; i.e. there is a causal relationship between the two events. This is also referred to as cause and effect. Correlation- A statistical measure (expressed as a number) that describes the size and direction of a relationship between two or more variables. Example: The classic causation vs correlation example that is frequently used is that smoking is correlated with alcoholism, but doesn’t cause alcoholism. While smoking causes an increase in the risk of developing lung cancer.

3. Hypothesis- is a prediction of what will be found at the outcome of a research project and is typically focused on the relationship between two different variables studied in the research. It is usually based on both theoretical expectations about how things work and already existing scientific evidence. 4. Research ethics- Ethics are self‐ regulatory guidelines for making decisions and defining professions. By establishing ethical codes, professional organizations maintain the integrity of the profession, define the expected conduct of members, and protect the welfare of subjects and clients. / informed consent- is a basic ethical tenet of scientific research on human populations. ... With rare exceptions, sociologists simply do not involve a human being as a participant in research without his/her informed consent or the informed consent of the participant's legally authorized representative. 5. Literature review- provides an overview of previous research on a topic that critically evaluates, classifies, and compares what has already been published on a particular topic. It allows the author to synthesize and place into context the research and scholarly literature relevant to the topic.

6. Participant observation- a research technique in anthropology and sociology characterized by the effort of an investigator to gain entrance into and social acceptance by a foreign culture or alien group so as better to attain a comprehensive understanding of the internal structure of the society. 7. Qualitative and quantitative methods (process of, pros/cons) 

Qualitative Methods

a. Assessing deeper aspects of value b. Spending time in poor neighborhoods to gain research c. Words and Images d. Exploring the Great Barrier Reef and seeing the devastation.

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Quantitative Methods

a. Counting b. Surveys- using excel c. Numbers d. Seeing how many people prefer sulfate free shampoo to sulfate shampoo

8. Sampling- is simply a subset of the population being studied; it represents the larger population and is used to draw inferences about that population. Sociologists typically use two sampling techniques: those based on probability and those that are not. 9. Theory- is a proposed relationship between two or more concepts. In other words, a theory is explanation for why or how a phenomenon occurs. An example of a sociological theory is the work of Robert Putnam on the decline of civic engagement. 10. Validity- is the degree to which an instrument, such as a survey question, measures what it is intended to measure while external validity refers to the ability of results of an experiment to be generalized beyond the immediate study. 11. Applied research- refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. ... Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop innovative technologies. There are many different types of psychologists who perform applied research 12. Variables- refers to that which varies, rather than being constant. In particular variable's reference is to structural features that vary (things like gender, age, race, social class) and have an influence on behavior or attitudinal variables (discrimination or attitudes about abortion).

(Other concepts may be on there as well but probably not: attributes, constants, cross-sectional, margin of error, normative, coding, descriptive / explanatory statistics, deductive research, and other things we don’t really discuss in class.)

Attributes- Any characteristic or quality of an individual or group. Constants- The term variable refers to that which varies, rather than being constant. In particular variable's reference is to structural features that vary (things like gender, age, race, social class) and have an influence on behavior or attitudinal variables (discrimination or attitudes about abortion). Cross Sectional- is research which makes observations at only one period in time. Examples include conducting a survey or opinion poll. ... The data are typically collected from multiple groups or types of people in cross-sectional research. Margin of Error- is a statistic expressing the amount of random sampling error in a survey's results. The larger the margin of error, the less confidence one should have that the poll's reported results are close to the "true" figures; that is, the figures for the whole population. Normative Definition- of deviance is especially appealing to many sociologists because it is based on one of the most familiar terms in their scientific vocabulary, social norms. This term refers to rules or expectations for behavior that are shared by members of a group or society. Coding - is an analytical process in which data, in both quantitative form (such as questionnaires results) or qualitative form (such as interview transcripts) are categorized to facilitate analysis. One purpose of coding is to transform the data into a form suitable for computer-aided analysis. Descriptive- are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. ... Descriptive Statistics are used to present quantitative descriptions in a manageable form. In a research study we may have lots of measures. /Explanatory Statistics- is one that explains the phenomenon in question. It is the variable that produces or causes changes in another variable (which is known as the dependent variable). Explanatory variables are sometimes known as causal or independent variables. Deductive Research- is when you form a hypothesis and do research do decide if its right or wrong, inductive is when you do research and take your analysis to form the hypothesis....