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6/27/2017

HistoryofphotographyWikipedia

Historyofphotography FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Thehistoryofphotographyhasrootsinremoteantiquitywiththediscovery oftwocriticalprinciples,thatofthecameraobscura(darkenedorobscured roomorchamber)andthefactthatsomesubstancesarevisiblyalteredby exposuretolight,asdiscoveredbyobservation.Asfarasisknown,nobody thoughtofbringingthesetwophenomenatogethertocapturecamera imagesinpermanentformuntilaround1800,whenThomasWedgwood madethefirstreliablydocumented,althoughunsuccessfulattempt.Inthe mid1820s,NicéphoreNiépcesucceeded,butseveraldaysofexposurein thecamerawererequiredandtheearliestresultswereverycrude. Theearliestsurvivingcamera

Niépce'sassociateLouisDaguerrewentontodevelopthedaguerreotype photograph,1826or1827,knownas process,thefirstpubliclyannouncedandcommerciallyviablephotographic ViewfromtheWindowatLeGras process.Thedaguerreotyperequiredonlyminutesofexposureinthe camera,andproducedclear,finelydetailedresults.Itwascommercially introducedin1839,adategenerallyacceptedasthebirthyearofpracticalphotography.[1][2]Themetalbased daguerreotypeprocesssoonhadsomecompetitionfromthepaperbasedcalotypenegativeandsaltprintprocesses inventedbyWilliamHenryFoxTalbot.Subsequentinnovationsmadephotographyeasierandmoreversatile.New materialsreducedtherequiredcameraexposuretimefromminutestoseconds,andeventuallytoasmallfractionof asecond;newphotographicmediaweremoreeconomical,sensitiveorconvenient,includingrollfilmsforcasual usebyamateurs.Inthemid20thcentury,developmentsmadeitpossibleforamateurstotakepicturesinnatural coloraswellasinblackandwhite. Thecommercialintroductionofcomputerbasedelectronicdigitalcamerasinthe1990ssoonrevolutionized photography.Duringthefirstdecadeofthe21stcentury,traditionalfilmbasedphotochemicalmethodswere increasinglymarginalizedasthepracticaladvantagesofthenewtechnologybecamewidelyappreciatedandthe imagequalityofmoderatelypriceddigitalcameraswascontinuallyimproved.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Technologicalbackground 3 Developmentofchemicalphotography 3.1 Monochromeprocess 3.1.1 Popularization 3.2 Colorprocess 4 Developmentofdigitalphotography 5 Seealso 6 Notes 7 References 8 Furtherreading 9 Externallinks

Etymology https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History of photography

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HistoryofphotographyWikipedia

Thecoiningoftheword"photography"isusuallyattributedtoSirJohnHerschelin1839.ItisbasedontheGreek φῶς(phōs),(genitive:phōtós)meaning"light",andγραφή(graphê),meaning"drawing,writing",togethermeaning "drawingwithlight".[3]

Technologicalbackground Photographyistheresultofcombiningseveraldifferenttechnical discoveries.Longbeforethefirstphotographsweremade,Greek mathematiciansAristotleandEucliddescribedapinholecamerainthe5th and4thcenturiesBCE.[4][5]Inthe6thcenturyCE,Byzantine mathematicianAnthemiusofTrallesusedatypeofcameraobscurainhis experiments[6] IbnalHaytham(Alhazen)(965inBasra–c.1040inCairo)studiedthe cameraobscuraandpinholecamera,[5][7]AlbertusMagnus(1193/1206–80) discoveredsilvernitrate,andGeorgesFabricius(1516–71)discovered Acameraobscurausedfordrawing silverchloride.DanielBarbarodescribedadiaphragmin1568.Wilhelm Hombergdescribedhowlightdarkenedsomechemicals(photochemical effect)in1694.ThenovelGiphantie(bytheFrenchTiphaignedelaRoche,1729–74)describedwhatcouldbe interpretedasphotography.

Developmentofchemicalphotography Monochromeprocess In1614,AngeloSalademonstratedthat"powderedsilvernitrateis blackenedbythesun",[9]aswaspaperthatwaswrappedaroundit.This discoveryofthesun'seffectonpowderedsilvernitratewasnot supportedandwassubsequentlydisregardedbythenrespectedscientists whosaidthathisdiscovery"hadnopracticalapplication."

Theearliestknownsurviving heliographicengraving,madein1825.It wasprintedfromametalplatemadeby JosephNicéphoreNiépcewithhis "heliographicprocess". [8]Theplatewas exposedunderanordinaryengravingand copieditbyphotographicmeans.This wasasteptowardsthefirstpermanent photographfromnaturetakenwitha cameraobscura.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History of photography

Around1717,[n1]JohannHeinrichSchulze,aGermanprofessorof anatomyandphysics,setdownabottlecontainingsilvernitrateand chalkbythewindowandunintentionallyinthepathofincominglight fromthesun.Themixture,unsurprisingly,turneddark.Butwhathe noticedandfoundtobestrangewasthatpartofitremainedwhiteand formedalineacrossthebottle.Hethenobservedacordhangingdown andgoingacrossinfrontofthewindow,whichhefoundouttobethe cause.Onfurtherexamination,hefoundthattheentiremixture inevitablyrevertedtoitsoriginalwhitecolor.Experimentingfurther, Schulzesucceededintransferringwordshepastedonthebottleprinted intothesubstance.[10] Describinghisachievement,Schulzewrotethat“[t]hesun’srays,where theyhittheglassthroughthecutoutpartsofthepaper,wroteeachword orsentenceonthechalkprecipitatesoexactlyanddistinctlythatmany

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whowerecuriousabouttheexperimentbutignorantofitsnaturetookoccasiontoattributethethingtosomesort oftrick.”[11]Heputthesilvernitrateinanoven,whichhadnoeffectonitscolor.Thisprovedtohim,definitively, thatheathadnotfacilitatedthetransformation,aspopularlysuspected.Rather,itwasthelight.[11] In1777,thechemistCarlWilhelmScheelewasstudyingthemoreintrinsicallylightsensitivesilverchlorideand determinedthatlightdarkeneditbydisintegratingitintomicroscopicdarkparticlesofmetallicsilver.Ofgreater potentialusefulness,Scheelefoundthatammoniadissolvedthesilverchloridebutnotthedarkparticles.This discovery,whichcouldhavebeenusedtostabilizeor"fix"acameraimagecapturedwithsilverchloride,waslittle noticedatthetimeandunknowntotheearliestphotographyexperimenters. Itwasnotuntilaroundtheyear1800thatThomasWedgwoodmadethefirstknownattempttocapturetheimagein acameraobscurabymeansofalightsensitivesubstance.Heusedpaperorwhiteleathertreatedwithsilvernitrate. Althoughhesucceededincapturingtheshadowsofobjectsplacedonthesurfaceindirectsunlight,andevenmade shadowcopiesofpaintingsonglass,itwasreportedin1802that"[t]heimagesformedbymeansofacamera obscurahavebeenfoundtoofainttoproduce,inanymoderatetime,aneffectuponthenitrateofsilver."The shadowimageseventuallydarkenedalloverbecause"[n]oattemptsthathavebeenmadetopreventtheuncoloured partofthecopyorprofilefrombeingacteduponbylighthaveasyetbeensuccessful."[12]Wedgwoodmayhave prematurelyabandonedhisexperimentsduetofrailandfailinghealth;hediedaged34in1805. In1816NicéphoreNiépce,usingpapercoatedwithsilverchloride, succeededinphotographingtheimagesformedinasmallcamera,butthe photographswerenegatives,darkestwherethecameraimagewaslightest andviceversa,andtheywerenotpermanentinthesenseofbeing reasonablylightfast;likeearlierexperimenters,Niépcecouldfindnoway topreventthecoatingfromdarkeningalloverwhenitwasexposedtolight forviewing.Disenchantedwithsilversalts,heturnedhisattentiontolight sensitiveorganicsubstances.[13]

RobertCornelius,selfportrait, OctoberorNovember1839,an approximatelyquarterplatesize daguerreotype.Onthebackis written,"Thefirstlightpictureever taken". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History of photography

Theoldestsurvivingphotographof "BoulevardduTemple",a theimageformedinacamerawas daguerreotypemadebyLouis createdbyNiépcein1826or Daguerrein1838,isgenerally acceptedastheearliestphotographto 1827.[1]Itwasmadeonapolished includepeople.Itisaviewofabusy sheetofpewterandthelight street,butbecausetheexposurelasted sensitivesubstancewasathin forseveralminutesthemovingtraffic coatingofbitumen,anaturally leftnotrace.Onlythetwomennear occurringpetroleumtar,whichwas thebottomleftcorner,oneofthem dissolvedinlavenderoil,appliedto apparentlyhavinghisbootspolished thesurfaceofthepewterand [15] bytheother,remainedinoneplace allowedtodrybeforeuse. After longenoughtobevisible. averylongexposureinthecamera (traditionallysaidtobeeighthours, butnowbelievedtobeseveraldays),[16]thebitumenwassufficiently hardenedinproportiontoitsexposuretolightthattheunhardenedpart couldberemovedwithasolvent,leavingapositiveimagewiththelight areasrepresentedbyhardenedbitumenandthedarkareasbybare pewter.[15]Toseetheimageplainly,theplatehadtobelitandviewedin suchawaythatthebaremetalappeareddarkandthebitumenrelatively light.[13]

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Inpartnership,NiépceinChalonsurSaôneandLouisDaguerreinParis refinedthebitumenprocess,[17]substitutingamoresensitiveresinanda verydifferentpostexposuretreatmentthatyieldedhigherqualityandmore easilyviewedimages.Exposuretimesinthecamera,althoughsubstantially reduced,werestillmeasuredinhours.[13] Niépcediedsuddenlyin1833,leavinghisnotestoDaguerre.More interestedinsilverbasedprocessesthanNiépcehadbeen,Daguerre experimentedwithphotographingcameraimagesdirectlyontoamirror likesilversurfacedplatethathadbeenfumedwithiodinevapor,which reactedwiththesilvertoformacoatingofsilveriodide.Aswiththe bitumenprocess,theresultappearedasapositivewhenitwassuitablylit andviewed.ExposuretimeswerestillimpracticallylonguntilDaguerre madethepivotaldiscoverythataninvisiblyslightor"latent"image producedonsuchaplatebyamuchshorterexposurecouldbe"developed" tofullvisibilitybymercuryfumes.Thisbroughttherequiredexposuretime downtoafewminutesunderoptimumconditions.Astronghotsolutionof commonsaltservedtostabilizeorfixtheimagebyremovingtheremaining silveriodide.On7January1839,thisfirstcompletepracticalphotographic processwasannouncedatameetingoftheFrenchAcademyof Sciences,[18]andthenewsquicklyspread.[19]Atfirst,alldetailsofthe processwerewithheldandspecimenswereshownonlyatDaguerre's studio,underhisclosesupervision,toAcademymembersandother

Oneoftheoldestphotographic portraitsknown,1839or1840,[14] madebyJohnWilliamDraperofhis sister,DorothyCatherineDraper

distinguishedguests.[20]ArrangementsweremadefortheFrench governmenttobuytherightsinexchangeforpensionsforNiépce'ssonand Daguerreandpresenttheinventiontotheworld(withtheexceptionof GreatBritain,whereanagentforDaguerrepatentedit)asafreegift.[21] Completeinstructionsweremadepublicon19August1839.[22]Knownas theDaguerreotypeprocess,itwasthemostcommoncommercialprocess untilthelate1850s.Itwassupersededbythecollodionprocess. AfterreadingearlyreportsofDaguerre'sinvention,HenryFoxTalbot,who hadsucceededincreatingstabilizedphotographicnegativesonpaperin 1835,workedonperfectinghisownprocess.Inearly1839,heacquireda keyimprovement,aneffectivefixer,fromhisfriendJohnHerschel,a polymathscientistwhohadpreviouslyshownthathyposulfiteofsoda (commonlycalled"hypo"andnowknownformallyassodiumthiosulfate) woulddissolvesilversalts.[23]Newsofthissolventalsobenefited Daguerre,whosoonadopteditasamoreefficientalternativetohisoriginal hotsaltwatermethod.[24]

Notallearlyportraitsarestiffand grimfacedrecordsofaposing ordeal.Thispleasantexpressionwas capturedbyMaryDillwyninWales in1853.

Talbot'searlysilverchloride"sensitivepaper"experimentsrequiredcamera exposuresofanhourormore.In1840,Talbotinventedthecalotype process,which,likeDaguerre'sprocess,usedtheprincipleofchemical developmentofafaintorinvisible"latent"imagetoreducetheexposuretimetoafewminutes.Paperwitha coatingofsilveriodidewasexposedinthecameraanddevelopedintoatranslucentnegativeimage.Unlikea daguerreotype,whichcouldonlybecopiedbyrephotographingitwithacamera,acalotypenegativecouldbeused tomakealargenumberofpositiveprintsbysimplecontactprinting.Thecalotypehadyetanotherdistinction comparedtootherearlyphotographicprocesses,inthatthefinishedproductlackedfineclarityduetoits translucentpapernegative.Thiswasseenasapositiveattributeforportraitsbecauseitsoftenedtheappearanceof https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History of photography

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thehumanface.Talbotpatentedthisprocess,[25]whichgreatlylimitedits adoption,andspentmanyyearspressinglawsuitsagainstallegedinfringers. Heattemptedtoenforceaverybroadinterpretationofhispatent,earning himselftheillwillofphotographerswhowereusingtherelatedglassbased processeslaterintroducedbyotherinventors,buthewaseventually defeated.Nonetheless,Talbot'sdevelopedoutsilverhalidenegative processisthebasictechnologyusedbychemicalfilmcamerastoday. HippolyteBayardhadalsodevelopedamethodofphotographybutdelayed announcingit,andsowasnotrecognizedasitsinventor.

AcalotypeshowingtheAmerican photographerFrederickLangenheim, circa1849.Notethatthecaptionon thephotocallstheprocess "Talbotype".

In1839,JohnHerschelmadethefirstglassnegative,buthisprocesswas difficulttoreproduce.SloveneJanezPuharinventedaprocessformaking photographsonglassin1841;itwasrecognizedonJune17,1852inParis bytheAcadémieNationaleAgricole,ManufacturièreetCommerciale.[26] In1847,NicephoreNiépce'scousin,thechemistNiépceSt.Victor, publishedhisinventionofaprocessformakingglassplateswithan albumenemulsion;theLangenheimbrothersofPhiladelphiaandJohn WhippleandWilliamBreedJonesofBostonalsoinventedworkable negativeonglassprocessesinthemid1840s.[27]

In1851FrederickScottArcherinventedthecollodionprocess.[28] Photographerandchildren'sauthorLewisCarrollusedthisprocess. (Carrollreferstotheprocessas"Tablotype"[sic]inthestory"APhotographer'sDayOut")[29] HerbertBowyerBerkeleyexperimentedwithhisownversionofcollodion emulsionsafterSammanintroducedtheideaofaddingdithionitetothe pyrogalloldeveloper.Berkeleydiscoveredthatwithhisownadditionof sulfite,toabsorbthesulfurdioxidegivenoffbythechemicaldithionitein thedeveloper,thatdithionitewasnotrequiredinthedevelopingprocess.In 1881hepublishedhisdiscovery.Berkeley'sformulacontainedpyrogallol, sulfiteandcitricacid.Ammoniawasaddedjustbeforeusetomakethe formulaalkaline.ThenewformulawassoldbythePlatinotypeCompany inLondonasSulphoPyrogallolDeveloper.[30] Nineteenthcenturyexperimentationwithphotographicprocesses frequentlybecameproprietary.TheGermanborn,NewOrleans photographerTheodoreLilienthalsuccessfullysoughtlegalredressinan 1881infringementcaseinvolvinghis"LambertProcess"intheEastern DistrictofLouisiana.

RogerFenton'sassistantseatedon Fenton'sphotographicvan,Crimea, 1855

Popularization Thedaguerreotypeprovedpopularinresponsetothedemandforportraiturethatemergedfromthemiddleclasses duringtheIndustrialRevolution.Thisdemand,whichcouldnotbemetinvolumeandincostbyoilpainting, addedtothepushforthedevelopmentofphotography. RogerFentonandPhilipHenryDelamottehelpedpopularizethenewwayofrecordingevents,thefirstbyhis Crimeanwarpictures,thesecondbyhisrecordofthedisassemblyandreconstructionofTheCrystalPalacein London.Othermidnineteenthcenturyphotographersestablishedthemediumasamoreprecisemeansthan engravingorlithographyofmakingarecordoflandscapesandarchitecture:forexample,RobertMacpherson's https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History of photography

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broadrangeofphotographsof Rome,theinterioroftheVatican, andthesurroundingcountryside becameasophisticatedtourist's visualrecordofhisowntravels.

GeneralviewofTheCrystalPalaceat SydenhambyPhilipHenry Delamotte,1854

InAmerica,by1851abroadsideby daguerreotypistAugustus Washingtonwasadvertisingprices rangingfrom50centsto$10.[31] However,daguerreotypeswere fragileanddifficulttocopy. Photographersencouragedchemists torefinetheprocessofmaking manycopiescheaply,which eventuallyledthembacktoTalbot's process.

Amid19thcentury"Bradystand" armresttable,usedtohelpsubjects keepstillduringlongexposures.It wasnamedforfamousUS photographerMathewBrady.

Ultimately,thephotographic processcameaboutfromaseriesof refinementsandimprovementsin thefirst20years.In1884George Eastman,ofRochester,NewYork, Inthis1893multipleexposuretrick developeddrygelonpaper,orfilm, photo,thephotographerappearstobe toreplacethephotographicplateso photographinghimself.Itsatirizes thataphotographernolonger studioequipmentandproceduresthat neededtocarryboxesofplatesand werenearlyobsoletebythen.Note toxicchemicalsaround.InJuly theclamptoholdthesitter'shead 1888Eastman'sKodakcamerawent still. onthemarketwiththeslogan"You pressthebutton,wedotherest". Nowanyonecouldtakeaphotographandleavethecomplexpartsofthe processtoothers,andphotographybecameavailableforthemassmarket in1901withtheintroductionoftheKodakBrownie.

An1855cartoonsatirizedproblems withposingforDaguerreotypes: slightmovementduringexposure resultedinblurredfeatures,red blindnessmaderosycomplexions lookdark.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History of photography

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Acomparisonofcommonprintsizes usedinphotographicstudiosduring the19thcentury

Colorprocess Apracticalmeansofcolorphotographywassoughtfromthevery beginning.ResultsweredemonstratedbyEdmondBecquerelasearlyas 1848,butexposureslastingforhoursordayswererequiredandthe capturedcolorsweresolightsensitivetheywouldonlybearverybrief inspectionindimlight. Thefirstdurablecolorphotographwasasetofthreeblackandwhite photographstakenthroughred,green,andbluecolorfiltersandshown superimposedbyusingthreeprojectorswithsimilarfilters.Itwastakenby ThomasSuttonin1861foruseinalecturebytheScottishphysicistJames ClerkMaxwell,whohadproposedthemethodin1855.[32]The Thefirstdurablecolorphotograph, photographicemulsionstheninusewereinsensitivetomostofthe takenbyThomasSuttonin1861 spectrum,sotheresultwasveryimperfectandthedemonstrationwassoon forgotten.Maxwell'smethodisnowmostwidelyknownthroughtheearly 20thcenturyworkofSergeiProkudinGorskii.ItwasmadepracticalbyHermannWilhelmVogel's1873...