HSC Geography Notes (Skills + Ecosystems at Risk) PDF

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past papers, NESA time management - determined by practice exams exemplar essays incorporate own research and case studies find other textbooks ~ excel, dotpoint, atarnotes (edunlimited.com)... really really content heavy school textbook (global interactions) - poor resource interesting human geo hsc course practice skills!!!! practice essays - essay scaffolds!!! only memorise key stats - don’t overwhelm yourself, you can also make up reasonable/realistic stats ● cut down notes by summarising into short answer responses and essays/essay scaffolds for each dot point ● typed notes first and then handwritten summarising ● sample essay scaffold: intro, paragraphs for each point with case studies/examples/statistics-(not needed in every single paragraph) ● review notes and content CONSTANTLY ● study everyday for 3 hours ● 3 weeks before exam is prime time ● ask teacher for feedback!!!!! ● correct initial draft and determine what makes a perfect essay, keep going until you it is perfect ● 25 mins multiple choice, 30 mins short answer, 2 hour essay ● THE EXAM: *** Reading time - 5 mins Working time - 3 hours Section 1 - Multiple Choice ● Geography skills and general knowledge (mainly definitions and topic based questions) Section 2 - Short Answer ● Questions come from the 3 topics ● Generally repetitive (refer to past papers) ● Can ask you to apply skills to the topics (eg. analyse topographic map and identify the biophysical processes in AR xxxx) Section 3 - Essay ● 3 essay questions: 1 from each topic. You only have to answer 2 questions. ● THE SYLLABUS: 3 topics ecosystems at risk *relates to other topics, urban places - world cities, mega cities, urban dynamics (most content heavy), people and economic activity ● NOTE TAKING: - Syllabus!!!!!!! (use as checklist, headings)

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for each topic, have a definition list of core concepts (NESA syllabus, past exemplar essays - finding words you can add to your knowledge bank, NESA answer guides for short answers and multiple choice questions) - define the topic and core components in each dot point - use textbook as guide to ensure you have everything related to the dot point - use past exemplar notes (eg. atarnotes, bored of studies..) , NESA marking guideline, short answer guides, exemplar essays, other peoples’ notes, own research, NESA syllabus, textbook as template - write short answer length summaries to consolidate understanding ● USE OF LANGUAGE IN HSC: 1) Refrain from making generalisations e.g. The North Shore is rich (x) , use specific statistics instead 2) Write in a ‘conservative’ style - use official titles (can be found on research documents), don’t be informal ● MULTIPLE CHOICE: - skills + basic questions from each of the 3 topic areas which are usually definitions - practice! ➢ go through past papers and trial papers … A LOT (deep depths of google) ➢ circle ones you get incorrect ➢ go through notes/online, understand how to do the question, reattempt ➢ “sample answer deconstruction” - do NOT rush mc, you don’t want to lose easy marks (keep a balance however) - skills ➢ PRACTICE ALL! ➢ Topographic maps (almost always guaranteed) ➢ Ternary graphs ➢ Cross-section ➢ Sight lines ➢ Transect ➢ Choropleth maps ➢ Density of a specific feature ➢ Frequency distributions ➢ Logarithmic and semi logarithmic graphs ➢ Population pyramids ➢ Photographs ➢ Synoptic Charts - low pressure systems (numbers/hectopascals on the isobars are decreasing towards centre). Result in the sucking in of wind which is pushed upwards. Usually results in windy conditions and rain - in southern hemisphere, southern = clockwise direction, northern hemisphere = anticlockwise direction, the closer the isobars = more extreme low pressure systems causing cyclones/typhoons/hurricanes, more windy

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high pressure systems - air is pushed down and out. Results in calm conditions with light winds, opposite of low pressure systems so northern hemisphere = clockwise, southern hemisphere = anticlockwise (also called anticyclone), trough = an area of low pressure extending into an area of high pressure, where conditions are unstable - cold fronts = dragon teeth (cold air advances onto warmer air, cold air rushes through below sending warmer air up, rising warmer air results in cloud formation and thus heavy rain), warm fronts = semi circles (warm air into cooler air, warm air forced to rise over a sustained area resulting in cloud formation, a wider band of rain may fall) - wind direction - where the isobars are bunched and what direction they’re facing (?) ➢ Time of Day - most trickiest and confusing due to inconsistencies - sun appears to rise in east and set in west - northern hemisphere = the sun will appear in the south at midday, southern hemisphere = appears in the north at midday - find north, then work out where east/west is - use building shadows , opposite directions from position of sun ➢ Gradient - = rise/run - height of first point - height of second point/distance between two points - make sure it’s in the same scale ^^^ - convert final fraction into ratio - divide numerator and denominator both by the numerator (1: _) ➢ Aspect / slope - look where contour lines numbers are descending and what position its facing ➢ Wind roses - question doesn’t appear often *** - winds are labelled by the direction FROM where they originate (arrowheads) ➢ Ecosystems at risk - application of skills - e.g. analyse the vulnerability or resilience of an ecosystem at a given AR or GR - 1 mark = 1 point/idea in short answer - look at the directive word : “how” = “explain” - short answers above 4 marks (or even 3) examples are ALWAYS needed to support response like reference to sources SHORT ANSWERS: do not spend too much time on short answer as a guide 1 mark = 1 minute/1 point get through it quickly, you don’t have to go into too much detail

● ESSAY: - 1000 words should be enough ● ECOSYSTEMS AT RISK: Important Starter Questions: 1) What is an ecosystem? Ecosystem: An identifiable system of the interdependent relationship between living organisms and their biophysical environment. Within ecosystems, incoming solar energy is captured and channelled through a hierarchy of life forms. Ecosystems are dynamic, constantly changing and adapting 2) What are biophysical interactions? The interactions between the four spheres: atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere. Includes other names: Geomorphic and hydrological processes, dynamics of weather and climate, biogeographical processes and adjustments in response to natural stress (lithospheric and biosphere processes mainly) 3) What is ecosystem functioning? Ecosystem Functioning: Energy Flows, Nutrient Cycling; contributes to the productivity of ecosystems DP 1 - biophysical interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems and their functioning We need to be able to define: ● Ecosystems ● Variations of Ecosystems ● Classify ecosystems ● Understand the ecosphere ● Ecosystem functioning ● Energy Flows ● Nutrient Cycling ● Productivity of an ecosystem ● Biophysical Interactions Variations in Ecosystems 1. Ways in which variation in ecosystems can occur: a. naturally b. human intervention 2. Over time, a small variation or modification can be magnified, causing major changes to the ecosystem e.g. cutting down a tree Classifications of Ecosystems ● Climate ● Physical Features ● Vegetation ● EG. Aquatic biome/ecosystems, terrestrial biome/ecosystem

Ecosphere and Ecology ● Ecosphere is the collection of living and dead organisms (biosphere) interacting with one another and their non-living environment ○ Nutrient recycling - detritivores feed on the dead, break down matter/nutrients and recycle back into source, plants will then use the new nutrients from the soil which animals will then again feed on ● Ecology is concerned with interactions that occur at five levels of organisation (in order): ○ Ecosphere (globe) ○ Ecosystem ○ Community ○ Population ○ Organism Ecosystem Functioning Two main processes which determines the functioning of an ecosystem: 1) Energy flows: The amount of energy locked into all organisms in a given area per unit of time (capturing solar energy and transferring it to life forms, eg. photosynthesis for plants > herbivores > carnivores ,, lower on the food chain hierarchy = less energy required) 2) Nutrient Cycling: Nutrients are also passed up through the food chain, however they also are passed through the biophysical environment (living and nonliving organisms such as reservoirs, nonliving is generally negative (human effects on environment)) Productivity of Ecosystems (*not completely necessary) The functioning of an ecosystem results in the levels of productivity produced within it. Measured in two ways: 1) Biomass produced: Mass of new living matter per square metre (or volume), per unit of time 2) Energy Flows: The amount of energy that is “locked into” all the organisms in an area per unit of time Four Spheres SUMMARISED ● Atmosphere - climatic factors eg. temperature (can’t be too hot or cold, ideal conditions=moist and warm, decomposition slows as temperature decreases), rainfall, determines the speed at which an ecosystem functions ● Hydrosphere - nature of the water cycle, rainfall, availability of water, connected to atmosphere/climate eg. polar system have little rainfall and low availability of fresh water and causes polar system to function slowly ● Lithosphere - determines nature of soils and provides habitats for many of the decomposer organisms, essential for nutrient cycling and production of energy that form the basis of a food web, stores minerals/nutrients/water within spaces of particles for use of plants eg. porous and non porous clays, also includes topography and aspect ● Biosphere - remain on Earth surface where the environmental conditions enable solar energy to produce the chemical changes necessary for life, consists of two types of

organisms: autotrophs-uses the solar energy, water, carbon dioxide and nutrients from the soil to manufacture the organic compounds used for energy and nutrients, heterotrophs-those that can’t produce their own food or energy Sample Question: (a) Explain how biophysical factors influence where an ecosystem at risk is located. 4 marks (2015 HSC) Sample Response: The biophysical factors influence the ecosystem at [Avalon Sand Dunes]. Firstly, the microclimatic atmospheric conditions of strong winds and tides, intense sunlight exposure and the large diurnal range of temperatures in the dynamic littoral zone, creates a lithosphere where it is difficult for soils to be established. This is because the strong winds can blow the topsoil away, and hence it is difficult for flora and fauna to establish itself in the biosphere. As such, the ecosystem is highly vulnerable due to its location in a microclimatic zone where conditions make it difficult for flora and fauna to establish itself. DP 2 - vulnerability and resilience of ecosystems equilibrium - balanced functioning of the four spheres Vulnerability - inability to adapt and restore natural function due to change and disruption to the dynamic equilibrium of an ecosystem Resilience - ability to adapt and restore natural function following a period of stress (measured through the elasticity, amplitude and malleability of an ecosystem) Factors Affecting Vulnerability Location - microclimatic features that determines the amount of flora and fauna (biodiversity), the specific conditions required of the environment, any changes to these conditions can make the ecosystem very vulnerable, harder to adapt = more vulnerable an ecosystem is eg. ecosystems which are located in extreme environments are constantly prone to natural stresses such as wind, rain, salt spray and waves which can greatly impact the biodiversity provided in an ecosystem (harder to adapt) ex. Avalon Sand Dunes (proximity to humans) > Humans frequent the beach, and as such, erode the sand and topsoil by slide, sandboarding, sand mining, and remove parts of the environment for development Extent - Ecosystems which are large in extent are often more resilient as the geographic range of organisms is larger as opposed to ecosystems of smaller size, where any loss of land will diminish organisms greatly. Can include ecotones, where ecosystems overlap to provide areas of greater biodiversity, habitats and resources. Ecotones are generally more resilient to stress as a result of a larger geographic range as well as greater linkages and biodiversity. ex. African Savanna, approx. 2.5 mil km^2 = more resilient > bigger extent Biodiversity - 1) genetic diversity: variety of genetic information in all the individual living organisms, the greater the genetic diversity = greater resilience, greater the gene pool

gives it a higher ability to adapt 2) species diversity: ecosystems that have many species at each trophic level are more resilient as a loss of one species will have others to fill its role and enable the essential processes of nutrient cycling and energy flows to continue unharmed 3) ecosystem diversity: variance in habitats, the way in which the ecological processes operate, more variance in habitats allows multiple pathways for ecological process to continue = more resilient ecosystems Linkages = the links between the trophic levels and interdependence of an ecosystem, link between organisms, more linkages = more resilient because organisms can find other places to feed from, three types of symbiosis (form of linkage)- 1) parasitism: consumes the host, doesn’t kill it 2) commensalism: one organism benefits but the other is unaffected 3) mutualism: both organisms are interdependent, both benefit each other Ecosystem Stability Stability is -persistence: ability to resist changes and remain in dynamic equilibrium -constancy: ability of a population to maintain numbers of size -resilience: adapt to changes and restore function after disturbances Resilience ● Elasticity: rate of recovery ● Amplitude: threshold level of stress beyond which full resilience is impossible ● Malleability : difference between final recovery level and pre-stress level, higher malleability = larger difference if an ecosystem cannot recover its natural state pre-stress Two types of stress: Gradual stress = GOOD, more time for the ecosystem to restore itself, smaller the impact = easier for ecosystem to adapt Catastrophic = BAD, makes ecosystem vulnerable, eg. Chernobyl, Mount Saint Helens Sample Questions (very common) How has ONE ecosystem at risk responded to natural stress? 6 marks (HSC 2015) Explain how nature and rate of change can impact the vulnerability and resilience of an ecosystem at risk. 3 marks. DP 3 - the importance of ecosystem management and protection DEFINITIONS ● Management: Using a source sustainably, doesn’t mean to exclude, to prolong the longevity of something ● Protection: Excluding people from the environment, prevents you from using something entirely, a environmental imperialistic approach ex. ● Ecosphere: Kyoto Protocol UNFCCC ● Ecosystem: Management of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park ● Communities: Establishment of a national park (National Parks and Wildlife Act 1982 (NSW)) ● Populations: Management of the Palau Sharks in the Palau Shark Sanctuary, the world’s first shark sanctuary

● Organisms: Probably a zoo is the best example of preservation and conservation Five reasons to manage and protect ecosystems ● utility value : all ecosystems have a monetary value, anthropocentric view towards environment, tourism, ecoservices, pharmaceutical value, high economic value eg. ecosystem is worth $142.7 trillion USD according to atlantic.com ● intrinsic value : right for an ecosystem to exist, irrespective of their utility value, involves both an anthropocentric and ecocentric viewpoint towards management and protection, paradigm shift between 1969-1973, ● maintenance of genetic diversity : process of natural selection, allows the continuation of species and passing on of stronger traits to their offspring ● heritage value : World Heritage Conservation Council def “natural features consisting of physical and biological formations or groups of formations, which are of outstanding universal value from the aesthetic or scientific point of view” ○ use CASH method in determining heritage value: ■ Cultural ■ Aesthetic ■ Scientific ■ Historical eg. Gondwana rainforest, located along Australia’s East Coast, has been a world heritage site since 1986 through fulfilment of UNESCO criteria above. Scientific and historical value as they showcase ongoing ecological processes, mainly due to their location on an asymmetrical marginal swell that runs parallel to the coastline. Home to the Tweed Shield Volcano and Caldera and according to UNESCO, is possibly the best persevered erosion caldera worldwide, providing both an aesthetic and scientific value. ex. organisations which give natural heritage status to ecosystems UNESCO (Adopted in 1972 in Australia during Paradigm Shift) RAMSAR Convention NSW has passed the Heritage Amendment Act (NSW) in 1999, protects sites of heritage value

DP 4 - evaluation of traditional and contemporary management strategies Contemporary Management Strategies Preservation: Protection of an ecosystem in its natural state, no human contact Conservation: Can be used however in a limited and sustainable manner Exploitation: Destroy everything, all resources of an ecosystem used in their entirety and replaced with an unsustainable environment Utilisation: Using most natural resources and then replacing an ecosystem with a new sustainable one eg. agriculture Traditional management strategies

eg. *Taboos (illegal to hunt by customary law) *hunting seasons *fire stick management: creates pyric ecosystems, promotes regrowth of plants, attracts animals to come out, overall it modifies the environment ALWAYS INCLUDE THAT TRADITIONAL USE OF THE LAND WAS GRADUAL AND HENCE SUSTAINABLE in an evaluation ● Traditional peoples adopted a stewardship/custodian approach (leave the land in the same way you find it, a duty to protect it) Changes in management strategies and economic attitudes ● Used to believe in profit, now there is a realisation that ecosystems have a utility value and need to be protected, mostly because of paradigm shift in view 1969-73, recognition of the scarce nature of resources ● In the contemporary western world, management strategies are constantly evolving and changing ever since the industrial revolution which resulted in greater resource use, immense population growth and overall extreme environmental degradation Minimising Human Impact on Ecosystem Types of strategies (contemporary): - exclusion eg. fencing - action: restoration (restoring to original stage, reintroducing species), rehabilitation (allowing an ecosystem to become functional with other new species), replacement (replacing a degraded ecosystem with another one) - education - design (designing an artificial device eg. sediment device trapping sediments, turbidity is protected) - legislation (environmental biodiversity and protection acts - to protect ecosystems from further damage, breach of law = fines, deterring human impact) (LEEAD) How to evaluate strategies: use ecological sustainability development (ESD) as criteria 1) intergenerational equity (between generations), fair access to ecosystem 2) intragenerational equity (within the current generation) 3) biodiversity 4) precautionary approach (satisfaction of all 4 points = effective) Short answer tips: *question almost always appears Evaluate management and protection strategies in ecosystems: USE ESD criteria Traditional strategies focus: Must state for traditional management strategies that their impact upon the environment was slow and gradual, therefore sustainable as the ecosystem could adapt to the anthropogenic modifications upon the environment. Contemporary focus: Legislation, Exclusion, Action, Education, Design (LEEAD) Approach: Identify management strategies (LEEAD or traditional) and then ESD criteria for evaluation Writing an essay in Geography Introduction:

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Provide your viewpoint on the question. This could be a fun fact, or a straightforward response to the question. - Define the core conc...