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Job # 2 Study Of Different Types Of Construction Material Significance: 1) The materials science and engineering serves as ground for all technology branches such as electronics, energy, communication, environment, and healthy engineering. 2) Construction materials are the most widely used materials and their usage is the largest in tonnage in the world. 3) The focus of our study is on modern construction materials including concrete, steel, wood, bituminous materials as well as polymers and fibrous composites.

Construction Material: The materials used for the construction of any building is called as construction material. There are many different kind of materials which are used for construction. In Pakistan , there are some materials which are commonly used for construction. Eg cement, sand, bricks etc

AGGREGATE: Aggregates are inert materials mixed with a binding materials like cement , lime or mud in preparation of mortar. Depending on size of particles the aggregates are classified into two types. 1) FINE AGGREGATE: Particles of fine aggregates pass through 4.75mm mesh and are entirely retained on 0.15mm mesh. Most commonly used fine aggregates are sand and crushed stones. 2) COARSE AGGEGATE: Aggregates the size of whose particles is bigger than 4.75mm but smaller than 4.75mm are known as coarse aggregate. Most commonly aggregates are used stone ballast and brick ballast. (1) CONCRETE : Concrete is a composite material composed mainly of water, aggregate, and cement. Usually there are additives and reinforcements included to achieve the desired physical properties of the finished material. When these ingredients are mixed together, they form a fluid mass that is easily molded into shape. Over time, the cement forms a hard matrix which binds the rest of the ingredients together into a durable stone-like material with many uses. (2) QUALITIES OF A CONCRETE Qualities of a good concrete are following as:

1) Strength : Good concrete should be able to withstand the stresses that it is subjected to. It is quite strong in compression but weak in tension. 2) Density : The concrete should be well compacted so that there are no voids or hollows left. It should weight 30,000 kg/cu metre. 3) Resistance : When used in floors and in the construction of roads the concrete should be able to withstand abrasive forces well.

TYPES OF CONCRETE: 1) Lime Concrete: It is a mixture of lime mortar and coarse aggregate and should satisfy the requirements of IS 241-1974.Course aggregate used in lime concrete shall be either natural stone ballast or brick ballast or cinder aggregate. 2) Cement Concrete: It is a composite material where in a paste of cement , made with water, on solidification binds firmly together the various particles of inert material like sand and stone ballast. The inert material is called aggregate.

Introduction To Cement Cement refers to material which acts as a binding substance. In civil engineering cement is used to bind structural members for construction of buildings, pavements, bridges, tunnels, roads and highways etc. cement is commonly used for normal construction work, is known as Ordinary Portland Cement.

Composition of cement Compound

Formula

Calcium oxide (lime)

Ca0

Silicon dioxide (silica)

SiO2

Aluminum oxide (alumina)

Al2O3

Iron oxide

Fe2O3

Water

H2O

Sulphate

SO3

Process Of Making Cement There are two process of making cement which are following as :

1) DRY ROCESS: I nt hedr ypr ocess ,eac hr aw mat er i ali spr opor t i onedt omeeta desi r edchemi calcomposi t i onandf edt oei t herar ot at i ngbal lmi l lorv er t i c al r ol l ermi l l .Ther awmat er i al sar edr i edwi t hwas t epr ocessgases. 2) WET PROCESS: In the wet process, each raw material is proportioned to meet a desired chemical composition and fed to a rotating ball mill with water. The raw materials are ground to a size where the majority of the materials are less than 75 microns.

(4)

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT 1) Soundness: When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste to retain its volume after setting without delayed expansion. This expansion is caused by excessive amounts of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO). 2) Fineness: Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement affects Hydration rate and thus the rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area-to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-cement interaction per unit volume.

Process of cement making

(5)

Introduction to Bricks Bricks are blocks of tempered clay moulded to suitable shape and size while it is still in plastic condition, dried in the sun and burnt, if desired so as to make them strong , hard and durable. The bricks are very old Civil engineering material which were utilized in many historical buildings of the Roman Empire and also in the Chinese Civilization burnt bricks and Sun dried bricks were utilized to construct the Great Wall of China (210 B.C.).

Types of bricks There are four types of bricks which are following as : First Class Bricks 1) Made of good earth which is free from saline deposits and are sand molded. 2) Burnt thoroughly without being vitrified and have deep red, cherry and copper color. 3) Regular and uniform in shape and size with sharp and square edges and parallel faces. 4) Must be homogeneous in texture and emit a clear ringing sound on being struck together.

First class bricks

(6)

Second Class Bricks 1) 2) 3) 4)

They shall be well burnt or slightly over burnt. They must give clear ringing sound when struck. The may have slight irregularities in size, shape and color. They may have slight chips, flaws or surface crack but must be free from lime or kankar. 5) The minimum crushing strength of second class brick should be 70 kg per sq c

Second class bricks

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Third Class Bricks 1) These bricks are slightly under burnt or over burnt. 2) They are not uniform in shape, size and edges. 3) They shall not observe water more than 25% of their own dry weight after 24 hours, immersion in cold water. 4) They have some signs of efflorescence.

(8) Overburnt Bricks 1) These overburnt bricks that being near the fire in the kiln get fused and loose their shape. 2) Used for construction inferior structures 3) Used as aggregate for concrete. (9)

Overburnt Bricks

(10)

Properties of Good Bricks 1.Color: The color of good brick should be uniform. It may deep red, cherry or copper colored. 2. Shape: Bricks should be uniform in shape with sharp straight right angled edges. 3. Size: Size of the bricks should be standard as prescribed by Indian standards. [19cm x 9cm x 9cm] (11)

Introduction to Sand It consists of small grains of silica and is formed by the disintegration of rocks caused by weather. Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e. a soil containing more than 85% sand-sized particles.

River Sands

(12)

Qualities of Sand : 1. Should not contain impurities like Silt, Clay and salts. These impurities can affect physical and chemical properties. 2. Free from organic matter. 3. Coarse and well graded angular grains in suitable proportions. 4. Grains should be hard, strong and durable.

Types of Sand 1) Pit or Quarry Sand : Sharp and angular grains found in soil as deposits. It is generally free of organic matter and impurities like clay. Overall quality of quarry sand is very good. 2) River Sand : Found on banks and beds of rivers. Washing and filtering is required to get rid of impurities. 3) Sea Sand: Found as rounded brown grains at sea shores. It requires extensive washing to get rid of sea salts. Bulking Of Sand : Bulking of sand is a phenomenon in which volume of sand increases due to wetness. It occurs because of sands ability to incorporate moisture. For instance, volume of sand increases by 20-30% with addition of 5-8% moisture content. It happens due to the formation of a thin film of water around sand grains. This thin film interlocks a considerable amount of air between itself and the sand particle. This interlocking and entrapping of air molecules increases the volume of sand more than it is expected and hence called ‘bulking of sand’.

Sands in Pakistan : There are three types of sands in Pakistan which are following as: 1. Ravi sand 2. Chenab sand 3. Lawerance sand

Ravi sand

Chenab sand

Lawrence sand (13)

Introduction To Wood The hard substance that makes up the stems and branches of trees and shrubs is called wood. The hard fibrous substance consisting basically of xylem that makes up the greater part of the stems, branches, and roots of trees or shrubs beneath the bark and is found to a limited extent in herbaceous plants. (14)

Types of wood 1) Hard wood: The wood is comparatively heavier and is darker in colour. OAK: Oak is the most widely used hardwood. There are more than 60 species of oak grown in the U.S., which can be separated into two basic varieties; white and red. The red variety is also known as black oak. 2) Soft wood: It is lighter in weight and colour. PINE: Pine is a softwood which grows in most areas of the Northern Hemisphere. There are more than 100 species worldwide. (15)

Hard Wood

Soft Wood (16)

Qualities of Wood 1. Oak is one of the most sacred trees. It carries the energy of kingship and wise rule, personal sovereignty, authority, power and protection. 2. Walnut teaches us clarity and focus, using our mental gifts wisely and how to best use our intelligence. 3. Olive offers insight, inspiration, and aids communication.

Difference between soft and hard wood (17)

Bituminous : Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike substance called bitumen. It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer

quality than anthracite. Formation is usually the result of high pressure being exerted on lignite.

Characteristics: Characteristics are following as 1) Bituminous coal contains moisture up to about 17 percent. Its fixed carbon content can range up to about 85 percent, with ash content up to 12 percent by weight. 2) Bituminous coal commonly contains the mineral pyrite.

3) Bituminous coal lights on fire easily and can produce excessive smoke and soot if improperly burned.

Manufacture Of Bituminous : 1) course aggregate are dried by heating; 2) An intermediate mix is formed by coating the course aggregate with hot bitumen. 3) wet sand is mixed with the intermediate mix obtained in step 2.

Bituminous (18)

Applications of Bituminous : 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Hydraulics & erosion control Catchment areas, basins Dam groutings Dam linings, protection Dyke protection Ditch linings Drainage gutters, structures.

Bituminous Installation (18)

Asphalt : It is also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product; it is a substance classed as a pitch.

Composition : The components of asphalt are classified into four classes of compounds: 1) saturates, saturated hydrocarbons, the % saturates correlates with softening point of the material 2) Naphthene aromatics, consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic compounds. 3) Polar aromatics, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and carboxylic acids 4) Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and heterocyclic compounds

Uses: 1) Asphalt is used to make Japan black, a lacquer known especially for its use on iron and steel. 2) Asphalt also is used in paint and marker inks by some graffiti supply companies to increase the weather resistance and permanence of the paint and/or ink. 3) It is used to make the color much darker. 4) Asphalt is also used to seal some alkaline batteries during the manufacturing process. (20)

Stones: The hard solid non-metallic mineral matter of which rock is made, especially as a building material. Stones are used in construction. There are many types of stones some are heavy and some are lighter. Every type have different properties. In past stones were commonly used but now they are replaced by bricks but in some areas stones are still common for construction purposes.

Types of Building Stone: Building stone, also called dimension stone, derives from one of three naturally occurring rock types:

Igneous Hard and non-porous rock formed from the slow or quick cooling of molten magma. The best example is granite.

Sedimentary.

…………….Hard and non-porous rock formed from the slow or quick cooling of molten magma. The best example is granite. Sedimentary Soft and fairly porous rock formed from deposits of eroded pre-existing rock that settled in layers mostly on sea beds, and became compacted. The best examples are sandstone and limestone. Metamorphic Hard and non-porous rock formed from pre-existing rock that has been altered by intense heat or pressure. The best examples are marble and slate. (21)

Granite

Slate

(22)

Uses: 1) Millions of tones of crushed rock are needed annually for road base, paving, ready-mixed concrete and asphalt. 2) Basalt is quarried and crushed as "Blue Metal" which is used as a road-base, and in reinforced concrete as aggregate. 3) Although wood, straw and mud is used for houses in some parts of the world, most buildings are preferred to be built of stones. 4) Material for foundation and walling of buildings, dams, bridges, etc.

House and wall made up of stones

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Properties :

1) Resistance to mechanical fixing: It is important for determining the mode of fixing and the dimension of façade cladding. The mechanical anchoring system must resist the panels weight and wind loads.

2) Heat conductivity and capacity : The conductivity can be used to evaluate the heat (or cold) transport through a wall or a floor. The heat capacity of the stone is important to consider in relation to heating of houses (e.g. heated floors).

3) Reflectance : The “reflectance” or opposite the “heat absorbance” of the stone is also an aspect to consider for a façade or a floor, which faces sunlight, in order to avoid over-heating.

Stones

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Reference: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Material strength book en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ http://www.google.com.pk/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2

5. www.britannica.com 6. www.lesterwoodsgeneralbuilders.co.uk 7. en.wikipedia.org 8. www.gobrick.com/Resources 9. www.nma.gov.au 10. http%3A%2F%2F1.bp.blogspot.com%2F-PUJ9XshRAHc%2FUzlqdnrKQk 11. Churchwhisperer.com 12. http://www.google.com.pk/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2.tradekorea.com 13. www.zameen.com 14. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood 15. www.hoovedesigns.com/woods. 16. Fcosmosflooring.com 17. http%3A%2F%2Fwww.becaamec.com 18. www.aboutcivil.org › Engineering Materials 19. http%3A%2F%2Fimg.diytrade.com%2Fsmimg

20.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphalt_concrete 21. http://www.realstoneworks.com/choosing-stone/types-of-stone/ 22. www.thetilestore.ca%2Fimages%2Fgalleries%2Flarge 23. http%3A%2F%2Fthumb7.shutterstock.com 24.http%3A%2F%2Fimage.shutterstock.com

Comments:

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Job # 3 Determination Of Dimensions Of Bricks ASTM Designation C67-03a

Significance: Bricks should be of standard size and shape They should be of good quality so that they can easily be burnt to core and its weight should be such that it can conveniently lift up and place it with one hand. Some principles are following as: 1. The length of brick should be twice of the width 2. Common size of brick in Pakistan is 9 x 41/4 x 23/4 in. 3. If the volume of brick is known the number of bricks present in any brick can easily be obtained.

Apparatus: 1. Ruler : 1-ft ruler can be used for the measurements of bricks. There are many other apparatus also by which measurements can be obtained e.g gauge, steel ruler or caliper. 2. Dry Bricks:

Measure the length , breadth and height of the dry bricks carefully. The color , shape and size of the bricks should be correct according to the conditions.

Procedure: 1. Measure the length of bricks properly. Atleast take two times so that it is confirmed. Take reading from top , bottom , right face and left face. After that take their average and write in the table. 2. Measure the width of the bricks and record the four readings accurately. 3. Measure the height of the bricks and take for readings properly. Take their average.

Width of brick

Length of brick

Height of brick (1)

Observations And Calculations: Sample

Length (L) in

First class

avg

Width (W) in

Height (H) avg

1. 2.

Secon d class

3. 4.

Third class

5. 6.

Average length

Average width

Average height

in

avg

Volume In3

PRECAUTIONS 1. Take all the measurements carefully to the nearest 1/32 in. 2. Measure all the dimensions along both beds and along both faces from the midpoints of the edges bounding the ends 3. Take the average of all the individual dimensions

Dimensions of Bricks (2)

Results: _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Reference: 1) During performance of experiment , Length , width and height of brick. Camera. 2) http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stegbar.com.au%2F.

Comments:

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Job # 5 Determination Of Efflorescence Of Bricks ASTM Designation C67-03a

Significance: Efflorescence is the loss of water of crystallization from a hydrated or solvated salt to the atmosphere on exposure to air. Due to efflorescence brick’s surface become white. Bricks showing more efflorescence is not good for construction material.It harms the plaster and paints.white color appears due to presences of salts , some salts are given as 1. Heavily efflorescence (deposition more than 50% ) 2. Moderate efflorescence ( deposition is 10-50% ) 3. Slight efflorescence (deposition not more than 10% )

Efflorescence Bricks

(1)

Apparatus: 1. Container: The container should not provide depth of water less than 1 inch and it should not give soluble salts when water are dipped in water. 2. Drying Oven : The bricks are bricks are placed in drying oven. It should have maintained temperature according to the given conditio...