Late adulthood - this is created by me as my ug study material PDF

Preview

Summary

this is created by me as my ug study material ...

Description

Physical Development in Late Adulthood The aging process often results in a loss of memory, deteriorated intellectual function, decreased mobility, and higher rates of disease. Physical Changes Late adulthood is the stage of life from the 60s onward; it constitutes the last stage of physical change. Average life expectancy in the United States is around 80 years; however, this varies greatly based on factors such as socioeconomic status, region, and access to medical care. In general, women tend to live longer than men by an average of five years. During late adulthood the skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. Hearing and vision—so sharp in our twenties—decline significantly; cataracts, or cloudy areas of the eyes that result in vision loss, are frequent. The other senses, such as taste, touch, and smell, are also less sensitive than they were in earlier years. The immune system is weakened, and many older people are more susceptible to illness, cancer, diabetes, and other ailments. Cardiovascular and respiratory problems become more common in old age. Seniors also experience a decrease in physical mobility and a loss of balance, which can result in falls and injuries. Changes in the Brain The aging process generally results in changes and lower functioning in the brain, leading to problems like memory loss and decreased intellectual function. Age is a major risk factor for most common neurodegenerative diseases, including mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer‘s disease, cerebrovascular disease, Parkinson‘s disease, and Lou Gehrig‘s disease. While a great deal of research has focused on diseases of aging, there are only a few informative studies on the molecular biology of the aging brain. Many molecular changes are due in part to a reduction in the size of the brain, as well as loss of brain plasticity. Brain plasticity is the brain‘s ability to change structure and function. The brain‘s main function is to decide what information is worth keeping and what is not; if there is an action or a thought that a person is not using, the brain will eliminate space for it. Brain size and composition change along with brain function. Computed tomography (CT) studies have found that the cerebral ventricles expand as a function of age in a process known as ventriculomegaly. More recent MRI studies have reported age-related regional decreases in cerebral volume. The brain begins to lose neurons in later adult years; the loss of neurons within the cerebral cortex occurs at different rates, with some areas losing neurons more quickly than others. The frontal lobe (which is responsible for the integration of information, judgement, and

reflective thought) and corpus callosum tend to lose neurons faster than other areas, such as the temporal and occipital lobes. The cerebellum, which is responsible for balance and coordination, eventually loses about 25 percent of its neurons as well. Changes in Memory Memory also degenerates with age, and older adults tend to have a harder time remembering and attending to information. In general, an older person‘s procedural memory stays the same, while working memory declines. Procedural memory is memory for the performance of particular types of action; it guides the processes we perform and most frequently resides below the level of conscious awareness. working memory is the system that actively holds multiple pieces of transitory information in the mind where they can be manipulated. The reduced capacity of the working memory becomes evident when tasks are especially complex. Semantic memory is the memory of understanding things, of the meaning of things and events, and other concept-based knowledge. This type of memory underlies the conscious recollection of factual information and general knowledge about the world, and remains relatively stable throughout life.

Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood As an individual ages into late adulthood, psychological and cognitive changes can sometimes occur. A general decline in memory is very common, due to the decrease in speed of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. This can cause problems with short-term memory retention and with the ability to learn new information. In most cases, this absent-mindedness should be considered a natural part of growing older rather than a psychological or neurological disorder. Distinct from a normal decline in memory is dementia, a broad category of brain diseases that cause a gradual long-term decrease in the ability to think and remember to the extent that a person‘s daily functioning is affected. While the term ―dementia‖ is still often used in lay situations, in the DSM-5 it has been renamed ―neurocognitive disorder,‖ with various degrees of severity. Alzheimer‘s disease is the most common type of neurocognitive disorder, accounting for 50% to 70% of cases. Neurocognitive disorders most commonly affect memory, visual-spatial ability, language, attention, and executive function (e.g., judgment and problem-solving). Most of these disorders are slow and progressive; by the time a person shows signs of the disease, the changes in their brain have already been happening for a long time. About 10% of people with dementia

have what is known as mixed dementia, which is usually a combination of Alzheimer‘s disease and another type of dementia. There is no cure for dementia, but for people who suffer from these disorders and for their caregivers, many measures can be taken to improve their lives. These can include education and support for the caregiver and daily exercise programs or cognitive or behavioral therapies for the person with the disorder.

Language Older adults report that one of their most annoying cognitive problems is the inability to produce a well-known word 

Although people of all ages suffer such word-finding failures, this type of error becomes more frequent with age, and older adults report that it is the cognitive problem most affected by aging , these failures may diminish older adults‘ success in communicating, and weaken the evaluation of their language competence by themselves and others. Such negative self-appraisal promotes withdrawal from social interaction.

Retrieval of the meaning of words and other semantic processes involved in understanding language show little change with aging. A number of studies have shown that older adults make more errors in naming pictures than young adults do. During discourse, a more natural form of speech than picture naming, older adults produce more ambiguous references and more filled pauses (e.g., saying ―um‖ or ―er‖) and reformulate their words more than young adults do. These dysfluencies suggest that older adults have difficulty retrieving the appropriate words when speaking. 

slip of the tongue in which the speaker produces one or more incorrect sounds in a word, for example, saying coffee cot when coffee pot was intended.

One of the most dramatic word production failures is the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) experience— being unable to produce a word one is absolutely certain that one knows. Participants kept diaries in which they recorded information about each TOT that they experienced during a 4-week interval. In both studies, the older participants reported more TOTs than young adults did. In one of the studies (Burke et al.), the majority of TOTs for both young and older participants involved proper nouns; the proper nouns for people were the names of people who had not been contacted recently. TOT words that were not proper nouns had a low frequency of occurrence in the language. Thus, although participants rated all TOT words as very

familiar, they were words, including proper nouns, that were used neither frequently nor recently, making them vulnerable to retrieval failures.

Personality Development and Successful Aging Continuity and Change in Personality During Late Adulthood: According to Paul Costa and Robert McCrae the "Big Five" traits are stable, they are; 1. Neuroticism 2. Extroversion 3. Openness 4. Agreeableness 5. Conscientiousness 

Psychologist Robert Peck proposes three major developmental tasks...

1. Redefinition of Self Versus Preoccupation with Work Role : Value adjustment to place less emphasis on career 'self' 2. Body Transcendence Versus Body Preoccupation : People must learn to cope with and move beyond changes in physical capabilities. 3. Ego Transcendence VersusEgo Preoccupation : The period in which elderly people must come to grips with their coming death. 

Coping with Aging: Bernice Neugarten's Study Identified four personality types...

1. Disintegrated and Disorganized Personality : Unable to accept aging, despair (nursing homes and hospitals) 2. Passive-Dependent Personality : Fearful of age and thus seek out help 3. Defended Personality : Halt aging by "acting young", excersise vigorously, youthful activities. 4. Integrated Personalities : Acceptance and dignity, most successful, cope comfortably. 

Wisdom

Expert knowledge in practical aspects of life.

Robert Sternberg quote...‖Intelligence permits human beings to inventthe atomic bomb, while wisdom prevents themfrom using it‖.

Socioemotional Development in Late Adulthood Growing older means confronting many psychological, emotional, and social issues that come with entering the last phase of life. As people approach the end of life, changes occur and special challenges arise. Growing older means confronting many psychological, emotional, and social issues that come with entering the last phase of life. Increased Dependency As people age, they become more dependent on others. Many elderly people need assistance in meeting daily needs as they age, and over time they may become dependent on caregivers such as family members, relatives, friends, health professionals, or employees of senior housing or nursing care. Many older adults spend their later years in assisted living facilities or nursing homes, which can have social and emotional impacts on their well-being. Older adults may struggle with feelings of guilt, shame, or depression because of their increased dependency, especially in societies where caring for the elderly is viewed as a burden. If an elderly person has to move away from friends, community, their home, or other familiar aspects of their life in order to enter a nursing home, they may experience isolation, depression, or loneliness. Increased dependency can also put older adults at risk of elder abuse. This kind of abuse occurs when a caretaker intentionally deprives an older person of care or harms the person in their charge. The elderly may be subject to many different types of abuse, including physical, emotional, or psychological. Approximately one in ten older adults report being abused, and this number rises in the cases of dementia or physical limitations. Despite the increasing physical challenges of old age, many new assistive devices made especially for the home have enabled more old people to care for themselves and accomplish activities of daily living (ADL). Some examples of devices are a medical alert and

safety system, shower seat (preventing the person from getting tired in the shower and falling), bed cane (offering support to those with unsteadiness getting in and out of bed), and ADL cuff (used with eating utensils for people with paralysis or hand weakness). Advances in this kind of technology offer increasing options for the elderly to continue functioning independently later into their lives. Loneliness and Connection A central aspect of positive aging is believed to be social connectedness and social support. As we get older, socioemotional selectivity theory suggests that our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close as, if not closer than, in our earlier years (Carstensen, 1992). Many older adults contend with feelings of loneliness as their loves ones, partners, or friends pass away or as their children or other family members move away and live their own lives. Loneliness and isolation can have detrimental effects on health and psychological wellbeing. However, many adults counteract loneliness by having active social lives, living in retirement communities, or participating in positive hobbies. Staying active and involved in life counteracts loneliness and helps increase feelings of self-esteem and self-worth. Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair As people enter the final stages of life, they have what Erik Erikson described as a crisis over integrity versus despair. In other words, they review the events of their lives and try to come to terms with the mark (or lack thereof) that they have made on the world. People who believe they have had a positive impact on the world through their contributions live the end of life with a sense of integrity. Those who feel they have not measured up to certain standards— either their own or others‘—develop a sense of despair. Confronting Death People perceive death, whether their own or that of others, based on the values of their culture. People in the United States tend to have strong resistance to the idea of their own death and strong emotional reactions of loss to the death of loved ones. Viewing death as a loss, as opposed to a natural or tranquil transition, is often considered normal in the United States. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (1969), who worked with the founders of hospice care, described in her theory of grief the process of an individual accepting their own death. She proposed five stages of grief in what became known as the Kübler-Ross model: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.











Denial: People believe there must be some mistake. They pretend death isn‘t happening, perhaps live life as if nothing is wrong, or even tell people things are fine. Underneath this facade, however, is a great deal of fear and other emotions. Anger: After people start to realize death is imminent, they become angry. They believe life is unfair and usually blame others (such as a higher power or doctors) for the state of being they are experiencing. Bargaining: Once anger subsides, fear sets in again. Now, however, people plead with life or a higher power to give them more time, to let them accomplish just one more goal, or for some other request. Depression: The realization that death is near sets in, and people become extremely sad. They may isolate themselves, contemplate suicide, or otherwise refuse to live life. Motivation is gone and the will to live disappears. Acceptance: People realize that all forms of life, including the self, come to an end, and they accept that life is ending. They make peace with others around them, and they make the most of the time they have remaining.

While most individuals experience these stages, not all people go through every stage. The stages are not necessarily linear, and may occur in different orders or reoccur throughout the grief process. Some psychologists believe that the more a dying person fights death, the more likely they are to remain stuck in the denial phase, making it difficult for the dying person to face death with dignity. However, other psychologists believe that not facing death until the very end is an adaptive coping mechanism for some people. Whether due to illness or old age, not everyone facing death or the loss of a loved one experiences the negative emotions outlined in the Kübler-Ross model (Nolen-Hoeksema & Larson, 1999). For example, research suggests that people with religious or spiritual beliefs are better able to cope with death because of their belief in an afterlife and because of social support from religious or spiritual associations (Hood, Spilka, Hunsberger, & Corsuch, 1996; McIntosh, Silver, & Wortman, 1993; Paloutzian, 1996; Samarel, 1991; Wortman & Park, 2008). How Culture and Society Impact the Elderly Depending on culture, aging can be seen as an undesirable phenomenon or as an accumulation of wisdom and status. How people view and perceive the aging process varies greatly from culture to culture. Depending on cultural norms, beliefs, and standards, aging can be seen as an undesirable phenomenon, reducing beauty and bringing one closer to death, or as an accumulation of wisdom and status worthy of respect. In some cases, numerical age is important (whether good or bad),

whereas in other cases the stage in life that one has reached (adulthood, independence, marriage, retirement, career success) is deemed more important than numerical age. Aging and Ageism Ageism (also spelled ―agism‖) involves stereotyping and discriminating against individuals or groups on the basis of their age. The term was coined in 1969 by Robert Neil Butler to describe discrimination against seniors, and it operates similarly to the way that sexism and racism operate. Butler defined ageism as a combination of three connected elements: prejudicial attitudes toward older people, old age, and the aging process; discriminatory practices against older people; and institutional practices and policies that perpetuate stereotypes about elderly people. Research on age-related attitudes in the United States consistently finds that negative attitudes exceed positive attitudes toward older people because of their looks and behavior. In his study Aging and Old Age, Posner (1997) discovered ―resentment and disdain of older people‖ in American society. The stereotypes, discrimination, and devaluing of the elderly seen in ageism can have significant effects on the elderly, affecting their self-esteem, emotional well-being, and behavior. After repeatedly hearing the stereotype that older people are useless, older people may begin to feel like dependent, non-contributing members of society. They may start to perceive themselves in the same ways that others in society see them. Studies have also specifically shown that when older people hear these stereotypes about their supposed incompetence and uselessness, they perform worse on measures of competence and memory; in effect, these stereotypes become a self-fulfilling prophecy. According to Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon (2012), old age is a risk factor for depression caused by such prejudice. When people are prejudiced against the elderly and then become old themselves, their anti-elderly prejudice turns inward, causing depression. Research has found that people who hold more ageist attitudes or negative age-related stereotypes are more likely to face higher rates of depression as they get older. Old-age depression results in the over-65 population having one of the highest rates of suicide. Eldercare The form of eldercare provided varies greatly among countries and is changing rapidly. Even within the same country, regional differences exist with respect to care for the elderly, often depending on the resources available in a given community or area. However, it has been observed that globally the elderly consume the most health expenditures out of any other age group. Traditionally, eldercare was the responsibility of family members and was provided within an extended family home. Increasingly in U.S. society, eldercare is being provided by state or charitable institutions.

In developed countries such as the United States, nearly one million elderly citizens are helped by assisted living facilities. These facilities allow the elderly to keep a sense of independence while providing them with the care and supervision necessary to stay safe. Other elderly people are cared for by members of their family; however, eldercare in the United States is often viewed as a burden by family members who are busy living their own lives, making assisted living and respite-care facilities a commonly chosen option. Cultural Views on Aging and Death While countries like the United States and Japan focus more on independent care, Indian culture places greater emphasis on respect and family care for the elderly. In contrast to the United States, many countries view elderly citizens, especially men, in very high regard. Tr...