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outlines written to prepare for exams. reinforcement learning, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, ...

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Learning I. Classical Conditioning Watson

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Little Albert Experiment

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Child with no fear of rats was exposed to rats along with a loud scary sound. Fear generalizes onto the rat, fear response from rat alone and no sound

 Classical conditioning: a person comes to link two or more previously unrelated stimuli -

Unconditioned Stimulus: naturally and automatically triggers a response without conditioning (smell of food)

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Unconditioned Response: T  he natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation)

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Neutral stimulus: elicits no particular response prior to conditioning (bell)

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Acquisition: A neutral stimulus paired to an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus -

The conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response

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Bell triggers salivating

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Extinction: the tendency for a conditioned response to weaken over time if the unconditioned stimulus doesn’t show up for long enough

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Generalization: s timuli that are similar but not the same as the conditioned stimulus sometimes still get a response (a bunny instead of a rat)

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Discrimination: l earning to distinguish which stimuli are relevant

 II. Operant conditioning Behaviors operate in an environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli -

Actions followed by reward tend to increase

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Actions followed by punishment often decrease

Skinner 1. Psychology should be objective, based in observable behavior 2. No talk of unseeable mental processes *Definitions *Important People

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Most research psychologists agree with (1) not (2)

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Skinner box: a rat pulls a lever for a food reward

Reinforcer: e  vent that strengthens a preceding action Primary: is unlearned; immediately reinforcing stimuli (food) Secondary: g  ains power through association with primary reinforcer (money) Shaping: closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior  Reinforcement Types 

Reinforcement

Punishment

Positive

Add p  leasant stimulus to

Add a  versive stimulus to

increase b  ehavior

decrease b  ehavior

Remove a  versive stimulus to

Remove pleasant stimulus to decrease b  ehavior

Negative

increase behavior

 Reinforcement Schedules 

Ratio

Interval

Fixed

Reinforcement after a specific number of responses

Reinforcement after a specific length of time

Variable Reinforcement after a randomized number of repetitions (1 in 5 chance)

Reinforcer after a random period of time

 III. Observational learning Bandura: Social Learning Theory Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating Mirror neurons in the frontal lobe fire when performing certain actions, or when observing another doing so -

Imitation, empathy

*Definitions *Important People

Effects -

Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others

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Viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior

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Agressive parents → Higher likelihood of aggressive children 

Memory I. Information processing models of memory Persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information -

Recall: r etrieval of information (fill in the blank)

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Recognition: identifying information learned earlier (multiple choice) 

Information-Processing Model of Memory -

Analogy to computer operations

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Encoding: getting the information into the brain -

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Extraction of meaning

Retrieval: getting the information back

 Atkinson and Shiffrin 3 stage model: 1. Sensory Memory: immediate, very brief and fleeting recording of sensory information -

Iconic Memory: momentary visual memory

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Echoic memory: momentary auditory memory

2. Short Term Memory: briefly holds a few items that will either be stored or forgotten. Holding a 7 digit phone number in your head just until you dial it. 3. Long term memory: relatively permanent storehouse. Holds knowledge, skills, experience.  Sensory memory feeds into the working memory. The working memory can be stored into long term, this can be aided by rehearsing the information.

*Definitions *Important People

The basic model holds, later refinements added the concepts of working memory and automatic processing. Working Memory is a newer model of short term memory that involves conscious, active processing of information. A sort of mental scratchpad or workspace.  II. Effortful and Automatic Processing Explicit memory: f acts, experiences, can consciously be talked about. -

“Declarative” knowledge: can be declared

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Effortful

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Semantic memory: facts, information

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Episodic memory: events, autobiography

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Processed by hippocampus for storage

 Effortful processing: e  ncoding requires attention and conscious effort Automatic processing: i nformation is encoded effortlessly and unconsciously.  Implicit memory: retention independent of conscious recollection -

Procedural memory, automatic skills -

Knowing how to drive without consciously paying attention to granular steps

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Cerebellum: role in storing implicit memories/stored reflexes formed by conditioning

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Basal ganglia: involved in motor movement, procedural skills

 III. Encoding and Retention Effortful processing strategies that help in remembering information: -

Chunking: g  rouping items into manageable units

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Mnemonic: u  se of imagery or organization to aid memory

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Hierarchies of bigger concepts with narrower subtopics

*Definitions *Important People

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Spacing the encoding of information over a longer period of time vs cramming

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Testing effect: enhanced memory after retrieving, and not just reading

 Flashbulb memories: -

Clear and vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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Hormones created by strong emotions signal important events, makes glucose available to the fuel brain activity

 Physical changes at the synapse level are the neural basis for memory -

Long term potentiation: a  n increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

 Retrieval cues: -

Context-dependent memory: putting yourself in the setting you first experienced something

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State-dependent access: w  hat was learned in what state is more easily remembered in that state

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Mood congruent memory: it’s easier to recall experiences consistent with the current mood

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Primacy-recency: easier to recall first and last items on a list

 IV. What creates forgetting -

Unused cluttering info

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Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new memories

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Retrograde amnesia: a  n inability to retrieve information from the past

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What we fail to encode, we will never remember

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Storage decay: even after encoding something well, we can still sometimes forget it eventually

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Retrieval failure 

*Definitions *Important People

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Interference -

Proactive interference: prior learning disrupts new information

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Retroactive interference: new information disrupts old information

 V. Memory construction errors: -

Memory is not precise

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To replay a memory is to reconstruct it, it slightly alters

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Misinformation can be incorporated into the memory

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Repeatedly imagining events can create false memories

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Misattributing the source

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Deja vu: current situation creates subconscious retrieval cues

*Definitions *Important People...