Lecture notes, Chaptures 1-12, Canadian Criminology PDF

Preview

Summary

- - - - - - - - - - - merged files: Chapter 1 Canadian Criminology Today.docx - Chapter 2 Canadian Criminology Today.docx - Chapter 3 Canadian Criminology Today.docx - Chapter 4 Canadian Criminology Today.docx - Chapter 5 Canadian Criminology Today.docx - Chapter 6 Canadian Criminology T...

Description

Canadian Criminology Today Chapter One: What is Criminology?

What is crime? * Crime can be defined in a variety of ways, and some scholars have suggested that at least 4 definitional perspectives can be found in contemporary criminology, These diverse perspectives see crime from (1) legalistic, (2) political, (3) sociological, and (4) psychological viewpoints. Legalistic perspective: * Seen from a legalistic perspective, crime is human conduct in violation of criminal laws of a state, the federal government, or a provincial or local jurisdiction that has the power to make such laws. * a serious shortcoming of the legalistic approach to crime is that it yields the moral high ground to powerful individuals who are able to influence the making of laws and the imposition of criminal definitions on lawbreakers. * Another problem with the legalistic perspective is its insistence that the nature of crime cannot be separated from the nature of law, as the one explicitly defines the other. Not always recognized by legalistic definitions of crime, however, is the social, ethical, and individual significance of fundamentally immoral forms of behaviour. * The legalistic definition of crime also suffers from its seeming lack of recognition that formalized laws have not always existed. Political perspective: * a second perspective on crime is the political one, where crime is the result of criteria that have been built into the law by powerful groups and are then used to label selected undesirable forms of behaviour as illegal. Those who adhere to this point of view say that crime is a definition of human conduct created by authorized agents in a politically organized society. * the political perspective defines crime in terms of the power structures that exist in society and asserts that criminal laws do not necessarily bear any inherent relationship to popular notions of right and wrong. Sociological perspective:

* sees crime as "an antisocial act of such a nature that its repression is necessary or is supposed to be necessary to the preservation of the existing system of society." * Psychological perspective: * a psychological perspective states that "crime is a form of social maladjustment which can be designated as a more or less pronounced difficulty that the individual has in reacting to the stimuli of his environment in such a way as to remain in harmony with that environment." Seen in this way, crime is problem behaviour, especially human activity that contravenes the criminal law and results in difficulties in living within a framework of generally acceptable social arrangements. Crime and deviance: * sociologically speaking, most crimes can be regarded as deviant forms of behaviour - that is, as behaviours that are in some way abnormal. * Deviant behaviour is human activity that violates social norms. What should be criminal? * "What should be criminal?" can be answered in many different ways, the social and intellectual process by which an answer is reached can be found in 3 contrasting points of view: (1) the consensus perspective, (2) the pluralist perspective, and (3) the conflict perspective. The consensus perspective: * the consensus perspective is built around the notion that most members of society agree on what is right and wrong, and that the various elements of society - including institutions such as churches, schools, government agencies, and businesses - work together toward a common vision of the greater good. * the consensus viewpoint holds that laws should be enacted to criminalize given forms of behaviour when members of society generally agree that such laws are necessary. * According to Raymond J. Michalowski, the consensus perspective is characterized by 4 principles: 1. Most members of society believe in the existence of core values. The consensus perspective holds that shared notions of right and wrong characterize the majority of society's members. 2. Laws reflect that collective will of the people. Law is seen as the result of a consensus achieved through legislative action and represents a kind of social conscience.

3. Law serves all people equally. From the consensus point of view, the law not only embodies a shared view of justice but also is perceived to be just in its application 4. Law violators represent a unique subgroup with distinguishing features. The consensus approach holds that law violators must somehow be improperly socialized, by psychologically defective, or suffer from some other lapse that leaves them unable to participate in what is otherwise widespread agreement on values and behaviour. * the consensus perspective is most applicable to homogenous societies or those characterized by shared values, norms, and belief systems. The pluralist perspective: * the pluralist perspective, mirrors the thought that a multiplicity of values and beliefs exists in any complex society and that different social groups will have their own respective sets of beliefs, interests, and values. * a crucial element of this perspective is the assumption that although different viewpoints exist, most individuals agree on the usefulness of law as a formal means of dispute resolution. * from pluralist perspective, the law exists as peacekeeping tool that allows officials and agencies within the government to settle disputes effectively between individuals and among groups; whatever settlement is reached will be acceptable to all parties because of their agreement on the fundamental role of law in dispute settlement. * the basic principles of the pluralist perspective include the following: 





 

Society consists of many diverse social groups. Differences in age, gender, sexual preference, ethnicity, and the like often provide the basis for much naturally occurring diversity. Each group has its own characteristic set of values, beliefs, and interests. Variety in gender, sexual orientation, economic status, ethnicity, and other forms of diversity produces interests that may unite like-minded individuals but that may also place them in natural opposition to other social groups. A general agreement exists on the usefulness of formalized laws as a mechanism for dispute resolution. People and groups accept the role of law in the settlement of disputes and accord decisions reached within the legal framework at least a modicum of respect. The legal system is value-neutral, that is, free of petty disputes or above the level of general contentiousness that may characterize relationships between groups. The legal system is concerned with the best interests of society. Legislators, judges, prosecutors, attorneys, police officers, and correctional officials are assumed to perform idealized functions that are beyond the reach of self-serving groups, so official functionaries can be trusted to act in accordance with the greater good, to remain unbiased, and to maintain a value-free system for the enforcement of laws.

The conflict perspective: * the conflict perspective maintains that conflict is a fundamental aspect of social life itself that can never be fully resolved. * Laws are a tool of the powerful, useful in keeping others from wresting control over important social institutions. * the conflict perspective can be described in terms of the following key elements:   

 



Society is made up of diverse social groups, and diversity is based on distinctions that people hold to be significant, such as gender, sexual orientation, and social class. Each group holds to differing definitions of right and wrong, so moralistic conceptions and behavioural standards vary from group to group. Conflict between groups is both socially significant and unavoidable because groups defined by such characteristics as ethnicity, gender, and social class compete for power,, wealth, and other forms of power. The fundamental nature of group conflict centres on the exercise of political power, which is the key to the accumulation of wealth and to other forms of power. Law is a tool of power and furthers the interests of those powerful enough to make it. Laws allow those in control to gain what they define as legitimate access to scarce resources and to deny such access to the politically disenfranchised. Those in power are inevitably interested in maintaining their power against those who would usurp it.

What do criminologists do? * criminologist: one who is trained in the field of criminology; also, one who studies crime, criminals, and criminal behaviour * occasionally, the term criminologist is used broadly to describe almost anyone who works in the criminal justice field, regardless of formal training. * it is more appropriate today to describe specially skilled investigators, crime-laboratory technicians, fingerprint experts, crime-scene photographers, ballistics experts, and other who work to solve particular crimes are criminalists. * a criminalist is "a specialist in the collection and examination of the physical evidence of crime." * police officers, corrections professionals, probation and parole officers, judges, crown attorneys, defence counsel, and others who do the day-to-day work of the criminal justice system are often referred to as criminal justice professionals.

What is criminology? * the attempt to understand crime predates written history. * prehistoric evidence, including skeletal remains showing signs of primitive cranial surgery, seems to indicate that preliterate people explained deviant behaviour in terms of spirit possession. Definition of terms: * Not only must criminologists deal with complex subject matter - consisting of a broad range of illegal behaviours committed be frequently unknown or uncooperative individuals - they must also manage their work under changing conditions mandated by ongoing revisions of the law and fluctuating social policy. * one straightforward definition can be had from a linguistic analysis of the world criminology. As most people know, -ology means "the study of something," and the word crimen comes from Latin, meaning "accusation," "charge," or "guilt." Hence, linguistically speaking, the term criminology literally means "the study of crime." * 3 other important types of definitions can be found in the literature: (1) disciplinary, (2) causative, and (3) scientific. * disciplinary definitions are those that, as the name implies, focus on criminology as a discipline. Seen from this viewpoint, criminology is a field of study or a body of knowledge. * causative definitions emphasize criminology's role in uncovering the underlying causes of crime. * finally, there are those who point to the scientific nature of contemporary criminology as its distinguishing characteristic. * Criminology is an interdisciplinary profession built around the scientific study of crime and criminal behaviour, including their manifestations, causes, legal aspects, prevention, and control. * Criminality: a behavioural predisposition that disproportionately favours criminal activity. * criminal behaviour: a way of acquiring valued resources from others by exploring and deceiving them.

Theoretical criminology: * theoretical criminology, rather than simply describing crime and its occurrence, posits explanations for criminal behaviour.

* a theory is made up of clearly state propositions that posit relationships, often of casual sort, between events and things under study. * a general theory of crime is one that attempts to explain all (or at least most) forms of criminal conduct through a single, overarching approach. * many past theoretical approaches to crime causation were unicausal (having one cause) while attempting to be all-inclusive. * an integrated theory, in contrast to a general theory, does not necessarily attempt to explain all criminality but its distinguishable by the fact that it merges (or attempts to merge) concepts drawn from different sources. The evolving science of criminology: * the theoretical perspectives adopted by criminologists provide the underpinning for the direction of their research and the development of their theories. * Over the past century, criminologists have undertaken the task of building a scientific or evidence-based criminology, as distinguished from what had been the "armchair criminology" or earlier times. Armchair criminologists offered their ideas to one another as conjecture fascinating "theories" that could be debated (and sometimes were) ad nauseam. * A variety of criteria has been advanced for declaring any endeavour "scientific." Among them are these:     

The systematic collection of related facts (as in the building of a database) An emphasis on the availability and application of the scientific method "the existence of general laws, a field for experiment or observation.. and control of academic discourse by practical application" " the fact that it has been accepted into the scientific tradition" An "emphasis on a worthwhile subject in need of independent study even if adequate techniques of study are not yet available" (as in the investigation of paranormal phenomena)

Theory building: * simply put, a theory consists of a set of interrelated propositions that provide a relatively complete form of undestanding. * theories serve a number of purposes. For one thing, they give meaning to observations, explaining what we see in a particular setting by relating those observations to other things already understood. The role of research and experiment:

* Reliable determinations of program effectiveness are made through research. * Research can be defined as the use of standardized systematic procedures in the search for knowledge. * some researchers distinguish between applied research and non-applied or pure research. * applied research consists of scientific inquiry that is designed and carried out with practical application in mind. In applied research, the researcher is working toward some more or less practical goal. It may be the reduction of crime, the efficient compensation of victims of crime, or an evaluation of the effectiveness of policies implemented to solve some specific aspect of the crime problem. * pure research, on the other hand, is undertaken simply for the sake of advancing scientific knowledge and is not expected to be immediately relevant. * another type of research, secondary research or secondary analysis, can be distinguished from primary research. Primary research is "characterized by original and direct investigation," whereas secondary research consists of new evaluations of existing information collected by other researchers. * scientific research generally proceeds in stages, which can be divided conceptually among (1) problem identification, (2) the development of a research design, (3) a choice of data-fathering techniques, and (4) a review of findings (which often includes statistical analysis). Problem identification: * The first step in any research, consists of the naming of a problem or choice of an issue to be studied. * within the modern scientific tradition, a hypothesis serves two purposes: it is an explanation that accounts for a set of facts and that can be tested by further investigation, and it is something that is taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation. * a variable is simply a concept that can undergo measurable changes.

The development of a research design: * research design structure that research process. They provide a king of road map to the logic inherent in one's approach to a research problem, and they also serve as guides to the systematic collection of data.

* research design consist of the logic and structure inherent in any particular approach to data gathering. * Confounding effect: a rival explanation, or competing hypothesis, that is a threat to the internal or external validity of a research design * to have the confidence that the changes intentionally introduced into a situation are the real cause of observed variations, it is necessary to achieve some degree of control over factors that threaten the certainty that experimental interventions did indeed cause the changes observed in the study group. * controlled experiments are those that attempt to hold conditions (other than the intentionally introduced experimental intervention) constant. * although criminologists sometimes employ true experimental designs in the conduct of their research, they are more likely to find it necessary to use quasi-experimental designs - an approach to research that, although less powerful than an experimental design, is deemed worthy of use when better designs are not feasible Choice of data-collection techniques: * all research depends on the use of techniques to gather information, or data, for eventual analysis. * many first-time researchers select data-gathering techniques on the basis of ease or simplicity, and some choose according to the cost or the amount of time the techniques require. * 5 major data-gathering strategies typify research in the field of criminology: 





Surveys: typically involve the use of questionnaires or surveys. Respondents may be interviewed in person or over the telephone, or queried via email or fax. Mail surveys are common, although they tend to have a lower response rate than other types of social surveys. The information produced through the use of questionnaires is referred to as survey data. Case studies: are built around in-depth investigations into individual cases. The study of one (perhaps notorious) offender, scrutiny of a particular criminal organization, and analysis of a prison boot camp all my qualify as case studies. Case studies are useful for what they can tell us to expect about other similar cases. Participant observation: involves a variety of strategies in data gathering in which the researcher observes a group by participating, to varying degrees, in the activities of the group. Some participant researchers operate undercover, whereas others make their identity and purpose known from the outset. It is possible to distinguish between at least two additional kinds of participant observation: (1) the participant as observer and (2) the observer as complete participant.

 

Self-reporting: investigates aspects of a problem not otherwise amenable to study. A research investigation of subjects in order to record and report their behaviours. Secondary analysis: not all data-gathering techniques generate new data. Secondary analysis purposely culls pre-existing information from data that have already been gathered (possibly for another purpose) and examines it in new ways.

Review of findings: * data analysis generally involves the use of mathematical techniques intended to uncover correlations between variables and to assess the likelihood that research findings can be generalized to other settings. These are statistical techniques, and their use of analyzing data is called statistical analysis. Statistical techniques provide tools for summarizing data and also provide quantitative means for identifying patterns within the data and for determining the degree of correlation that exists between variables. Quantitative versus qualitative methods: * Quantitative: a casual, complementary, or reciprocal relationship between two measurable variables. Produce measurable results that can be analyzed statistically. * qualitative: a research technique that produces subjective results or results that are difficult to quantify. Provide yet another set of potentially useful criminological research tools. Important for the insight they provide into the subjective workings of the criminal mind and the processes by which meaning is accorded to human experience. Introspection, life histories, case studies, and participant observation all contain the potential to yield highly qualitative data. Values and ethics in the conduct of research: * data confidentiality: the ethical requirement of social scientific research to protect the confidentiality of individual research participants while preserving justified research access to the information participants provide * informed conse...