Lecture Notes, Lectures 1 - 14 - Professor Wendi Gardner PDF

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Professor Wendi Gardner ...

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Behaviorism Tuesday,% September% 22,%2015

2:36%PM

• John%Watson,%B.F.%Skinner,%Ivan%Pavlov%-1930s%through%1950s • Studied%behavior%as%an%end%to%itself%instead%of%using%it%to%infer%anything%about% the%mind • Tabula%Rasa=blank%slate ○ What%shapes%us%is%our%rewards%and%punishments%of%our%behaviors • Focused%on%learning

Cognitive)Revolution Tuesday,& September& 22,&2015

2:43&PM

• George&Miller- 1957 • Brought&back&the&mind ○ Thinking&is&information&processing ○ Study&of&psycholinguistics • Focused&on&memory,&learning,&language

Functionalism Tuesday,& September& 22,&2015

2:26&PM

• William& James- late&1800s • Fan&of&Darwin's&ideas • Consciousness&should&be&studied&for&its&function ○ What&does&it&do&rather&than&what&it&is&made&of? ○ How&is&the&psyche&adaptive? • Focuses&on&Social,&practical,&everyday&experience

Gestalt Tuesday,$ September$ 22,$2015

• • • •

2:29$PM

Max$Wertheimer- early$1900s Focuses$on$perception Anti-structuralist Experience$ is$indescribably$different$than$the$sum$of$the$parts

Humanists Tuesday,' September' 22,'2015

2:40'PM

• Abraham'Maslow,'Carl'Rogers- 1940s'through'1960s • Our'behaviors'are'determined'by'free'will • Maslow ○ Hierarchy'of'needs ○ Focus'on'the'present'and'potential'growth

Psychoanalytic Tuesday,( September( 22,(2015

2:32(PM

• Sigmund(Freud- 1900s • Behavior(is(determined(by(unconscious(drives ○ Influenced(heavily(by(childhood • Used(dream(analysis(and(free-association • Focused(on(personality(development(and(psychopathology

Social'Revolution Tuesday,$ September$ 22,$2015

2:44$PM

• Kurt$Lewin ○ Need$to$understand$individuals$and$their$social$pressures/environment$to$ predict$behavior • B$=$f(P,E)$(definition$) • Group$dynamics • Focused$on$social

Structuralism Tuesday,' September' 22,'2015

1:57'PM

• Wilhelm'Wundt,'Edward'Titchener-late'1800s • Loved'the'Periodic'table:'wanted'a'periodic'table'of'the'mind • Relied'on'introspection,'required'years'of'practice ○ Describe'sensory'elements'in'basic'form ○ Without'forms'of''knowledge' • Focused'on'perception'and'sensory

4"Canons"of"Science Tuesday,* September* 29,*2015

1:54*PM

• Determinism:*the*universe*is*orderly,*effects*have*causes • Empiricism:*importance*of*observation ○ Theories*based*on*data,*not*intuition • Parsimony:*simpler*is*better ○ "Occam's*Razor" • Testability:*importance*of*falsifiability ○ Know*to*prove*something*wrong

Correlation Tuesday,# September# 29,#2015

2:20#PM

• An#expression#of#the#relationship#between#two#variables • Sign:#positive#or#negative,#reflects#pattern#of#relationship ○ Positive:#a#increases,#b#increases ○ Negative:#a#increases,#b#decreases • Magnitude:#can#vary#from#1#to#-1 ○ Absolute#magnitude#reflects#strength#of#relationship,#larger=stronger • Can#inform#about#the#nature#of#relationships#between#variables#in#the#real# world • CORRELATION#DOESN’T#EQUAL#CAUSATION

Good$Research Tuesday,' September' 29,'2015

2:35'PM

• Avoids' ○ Bias'(experimenter'or'participants) § Experimenter'bias □ Observer'bias- observer'expectations'can'alter'the'way'one' perceives'behavior □ Experimenter'expectancy'effects- subtle'differences'in' treatment'may'influence'actual'participant'behavior § Participant'Bias □ Social'desirability- want'to'look'like'a'good'person'(not' responding'naturally) □ Suggestibility'or'desire'to'please'the'experimenter' (or' reactance'- the'reverse) § Make'the'experiment'double'blind § Use'less'controllable'measures'and/or'less'obvious'manipulations'of' the'independent'variable ○ Confounds § Any'alternative'variable'that'could'potentially'explain'differences' between'groups § Rigid'control- every'participant's'experience' is'controlled/identical' *except*' for'your'manipulation § Randomly'vary'as'many''nonessentials''as'possible'so'any' differences'will'average'out • Uses'reliable' and'valid'measures ○ Replicability,'if'you'do'it'again,'do'you'get'the'same'answer? ○ Reliability:' how'stable'are'your'measures? ○ Validity:'how''true''are'your'findings? § Construct'validity:'operations'are'good'reflections'of'the'construct § Internal'validity:'lack'of'confounds,'within'this'experiment,' inference'is'solid § External'validity:'generalizability' of'findings'to'other'samples ○ REPLICATION'is'key'to'confidence • Psychologically'real

○ "feels'real" ○ Mundane'realism:'the'lab'tasks'mirror'the'real'world ○ Psychological'realism:'the'tasks'used'to'capture'the'psychological'process' in'a'controllable'setting,'even'if'still'feels'like'a'lab'environment § Relatively'easy § Relatively'difficult § Really'difficult • Ethical ○ Must'be'thoughtful'in'terms'any'potential'costs'to'the'subjects ○ IRBs- Institutional'Review'Boards'- review'all'research'done'in'university' settings ○ Informed'consent'- participants'need'be'told'what'may'happen'to'them ○ Ability'to'withdraw'without'penalty ○ Deception'- when'participants'cannot'be'told'about'an'aspect'of'a'study' ahead'of'time,'gets'increased'scrutiny'by'the'IRB ○ Debriefing'- must'always'be'debriefed,'told'what'study'was'about'and' informed'of'any'deception

Scientific(Method(of(Psychology Tuesday,, September, 29,,2015

2:06,PM

1. Observation,of,association 2. Hypothesis,of,a,relationship,among,variable a. Variable:,measurable,conditions,,events,,characteristics, or,behaviors b. Hypothesis:,a,guess,about,relationship,of,variables 3. Translation,of,the,hypothesized,variables,into,specifics a. Operationalization:,the,concrete,measurable,or,manipulable,definition,on, the,variable,of,interest 4. Choose,a,research,format a. Case,study:,an,in-depth,investigation,of,a,single,case,(one,participant,,pair, or,group) i. Detailed,,across,time ii. Real-life,observations,,rich,description iii. Limited,generalizability iv. generalizability:,inferences,about,the,'general',truth,of,the, population v. Used,of,rare,phenomena,and,those,that,cannot,be,ethically, manipulated b. Survey:,question,many,participants,concerning,phenomenon,of,interest i. Greater,generalizability,,ask,about,a,variety,of,events ii. Self-report,biases,,lack,of,insight,,'tests',of,hypotheses,are, correlational,in,nature c. Experiment:,manipulation,of,variables,in,order,to,assess,causal,effects,on, other,variables i. Can,draw,causal,inferences ii. Artificial iii. Hallmark,of,an,experiment,is,random,assignment,- placing, participants,into,conditions,randomly,(no,volunteers)

Behavioral*Genetics Thursday,& October& 1,&2015

1:10&PM

• Genes ○ Units&of&heredity ○ Can&be&turned&'on'&or&'off':&environmental&stimuli&also&capable&of&turning& them&on&or&off • Genotype&v.&Phenotype ○ Phenotype&is&the&result&of&genes&and&environment • Role&of&Heredity: ○ Determine&the&role&of&genetics&v.&environment • Twins ○ Twin&studies:&compare&the&size&of&the&correlations&of&the&train&under&study& between&MZ&twins&v.&DZ&twins § MZ&>&DZ&:&genetic § MZ&=&DZ&:&common&environment § MZ&)Meat § Bell)->)Drool)(don't)introduce)meat) ○ UCS)=)unconditioned)stimulus)(meat)in)Pavlov)study) ○ UCR)=)unconditioned)response)(drool)in)Pavlov)study) ○ CS)=)conditioned)stimulus)(bell)in)Pavlov)study) ○ CR)=)conditioned)response)()drool)to)bell)in)Pavlov)study) ○ Many)stimuli)are)paired)but)not)all)become)associated § Contiguity:)onset)of)CS)a)bit)before)UCS,)ends)with)UCS § Novelty:)newer)stimuli)lead)to)faster)learning)because)no)other) associations § Biological)Preparedness □ Taste)Aversion ® Internal/external)signals)with)internal/external)novel) factors)respectively □ Learned)Fear ○ Extinction: repeated presentation of CS w/o the UCS, eventually CR will

extinguish § Longer)with)biological)preparedness ○ Spontaneous)Recovery:)when)CR)rebounds)after)a)time)of)no)exposure)to) the)CS § Implies)we)don't)'unlearn')original)association ○ Discrimination:)when)learning)becomes)more)specific ○ Generalization:)when)learned)CRs)to)one)CS)generalize) to)other,)similar)CS) objects

Observational-Learning Thursday,& October& 15,&2015

3:08&PM

• Occurs&when&behavior&is&influenced&by&the&observation&of&others • Vicarious&reinforcement ○ High&impact&on&learning&when&the&other&receives&strong&positive&or& negative&consequences • High&impact&when&other&evokes&strong&emotions&and/or&is&liked&or&admired

Operant(Conditioning Thursday,& October& 15,&2015

2:37&PM

• Learn&from&'consequences'&as&much&as&from&antecedents • Learning&controlled&by&consequences&in&addition&to&mere&association • Reinforcement ○ Occurs&when&the&consequences&of&a&response&increases&an&organisms& tendency&to&make&that&response ○ Positive;&response&increases&because&get&a&positive ○ Negative;&response&increases&because&remove&a&negative • Punishment ○ Occurs&when&the&presentation&of&a&negative&consequence&decreases& tendency&to&make&that&response ○ Positive;&response&decrease&because&get&a&negative ○ Negative;&response&decreases&because&remove&a&positive • Positive&and&negative&refers&to&presence&of&absence ○ Positive&&reinforcement;&presence&of&good ○ Positive&punishment;&presence&of&bad ○ Negative&reinforcement;&absence&of&bad ○ Negative&punishment;&absence&of&good • Shaping ○ Reinforcement&of&closer&approximations&of&a&behavior • Chaining ○ Reinforcing&'chains'&of&behavior&into&one&stream,&only&reinforce&when& entire&'chain'&of&previously&reinforced&behaviors&are&emitted&in&the&right& order • Extinction ○ Overjustification&effect- if&reward&a&behavior&that&otherwise&was& inherently&interesting&or&rewarding,&can&reduce&interest&in&engaging&in&the& behavior&w/o&reward § Could&be&used&to&reward&unwanted&behavior,&then&decrease&the& reward ○ Resistance&to&extinctions • Primary&Reinforcers:&satisfies&basic&or&biological&needs • Secondary Reinforcers: events that acquire primary reinforcing qualities through

association • Continuous&reinforcement:&when&every&instance&of&the&desired&behavior&is& reinforces,&good&for&initial&learning • Partial&Reinforcement:&when&desired&behavior&is&reinforced&only&some&of&the& time ○ Better&for&long&term&persistence ○ Variable&ratio&reinforcement • Random&Reinforcement ○ Results&in&'superstition'&behavior

Brain&Development&Promotes&Learning Monday,%November% 2,%2015

7:32%PM

• Myelination%and%Neuronal%Connections ○ Synaptic%pruning § When%connection%are%not%used,%they%are%decay%and%disappear • Sensitive%Learning%Periods ○ Sensitive%Periods § Specific%points%in%development%people%learn%some%skills%or%kinds%of% knowledge%most%easily

Cognitive Thursday,& October& 29,&2015

2:24&PM

• Jean&Piaget ○ First&to&scientifically&study&the&cognitive&development&of&children ○ Began&w/&intelligence& testing ○ Children&think&differently&than&adults ○ Observed&his&own&children ○ Stage&model § Each&stage&depends&upon&knowledge&acquired&in&previous&stage § Reflects&representation&of&the&world § 4&stages □ Sensorimotor&(0-2) ® Learn&associations&between&actions&and&consequences& and&behave&more&intentionally ® Develop&object&permanence&around&3-6&months ® Around&12&months,&start&to&experiment&with&the&world,& learns&about&cause&and&effect ® 18-24&months,&symbolic&representation □ Preoperational&(2-7) ® Child&engages&in¢ration ◊ Focus&on&what&they&see&(sensory&information)& whether&than&what&they&know ® Extremely&egocentric&processing ◊ Cannot&take&another&persons&visual&perspective □ Concrete&operational&(7-12) ® Understands&conservation,&knows&the&change&in&sensory& info¬&equal&to&change&in&substance,&pass&false&belief& tests ® Improvement&in&logical&reasoning ® Good&at&reasoning&about&concrete&objects&in&the&world,& not&good&at&abstract&or&hypothetical&reasoning □ Formal&operational&&(12+) ® Use&and&understand&abstract&concepts,&metaphor,& analogical reasoning

® Use&systematic&reasoning&and&logic ® End&of&qualitative&changes&in&cognition ○ Modern&theorists&believe&the&stages&aren't&as&strict,&more&gradual&and& continuous § 4&months&old □ Basic&understanding&of ® Gravity ® Causality

Language Thursday,& October& 29,&2015

2:52&PM

• Joint&attention • Reference:&a&word&stands&for&something&else&(hard&inferential&problem) • Scaffolding ○ Syntactic&cues&(structure) ○ Social&cues • Babies&are&hardwired&to&form&categories • Holophrastic&period ○ 12-14&MONTHS:&EXPRESS&whole&phrase&with&a&single&word • Overextension ○ 14-18&months:&calling&all&4&legged&animals&'doggies' • Word&Spurt ○ 18&months:&2-10&new&words&a&day • Telegraphic&speech ○ 2&years:&simple&sentences

Newborns Thursday,' October' 29,'2015

1:55'PM

• Developmental'Psychology:'Systematic'changes'that'occur'over'the'lifespan ○ Reflect'maturation'and'learning • Born'with'reflexes'and'ability'to'learn'environmental'contingencies ○ Grasping,'sucking,'orienting'attention'to'novelty • Brain'triples'in'size'between'birth'and'4 ○ Brain'development'constrains'behavior ○ Developmental'plasticity § Environmental'input'impacts'brain'development ○ Brain'development'continues'into'adolescence ○ Life'span'development § Even'through'adulthood § Life'transitions'continue'to'affect'our'psychology

Social Thursday,' October' 29,'2015

2:58'PM

• Theory'of'mind ○ Knowing'that'others'have'knowledge'or'intentions ○ Chimps'and'the'clumsy'v.'mean'juice'giver ○ Understanding'intentions'allows'for'social'evaluation/judgment • Attachment'Theory ○ Bonds'between'infant'and'caregiver' will'influence'the'individual's' interaction'with'others'throughout'the'lifespan § A'- avoidant § B'- secure § C'- anxious/ambivalent ○ Influenced'by'child'temperament'and'early'caregiver'behavior ○ May'affect'social'functioning'throughout'life ○ Ainsworth's'strange'situation'test § 3'stages'- explore,'separate,'reunite § Types'of'attachment'visible'at'18'months □ Secure:'explore,'upset,'can'be'comforted □ Anxious:'cling,'upset,'cannot'be'comforted'easily □ Avoidant:'ignore,'don't'act'upset,'don't'greet'mom'upon' return ○ Patterns'continues'into'adulthood'and'are'repeated'in'other'relationships § Airport'departure'study □ Secure:'remained'close,'departed'ok □ Anxious:'traumatized'at'departure □ Avoidant:'ignored'partner § Boyfriend'study- Ainsworth'kids'now'in'college'(all'female,'brought' boyfriend) □ No'differences'in'waiting'room'apparent'until'stress'of''pain'' study □ Secure- sought'and'received'comfort □ Anxious- clingy,'not'comforted □ Avoidant- sat'further'away'from'partner,'didn't'mention'it

Developmental+Theories Thursday,% November% 5,%2015

2:37%PM

• Many%theories%stress%early%childhood%experience • Attachment%theory ○ Thought%to%be%a%'meta%theory'%about%one's%place%in%the%social%world ○ May%affect%social%functioning%throughout%life • Freud ○ Developmental%Focus § Personality%will%be%determined%by%how%child%passes%through%early% psychosexual%stages § 'fixations'%occur%when%under%stress,%regress%to%problematic%area § Oral%stage □ Gains%sensual%gratification%through%the%mouth ® Adult%with%an%oral%fixation%may%be%prone%to%excessive% eating/drinking § Anal%stage □ Toilet%training%important ® Adult%may%be%compulsively%neat%and%precise § Phallic%stage □ 3-6%years □ Oedipal%or%Electra%complex%(fixation%on%opposite%sex%parent)% gives%way%to%identification%with%same-sex%parent ® Adult%may%not%be%comfortable%in%sex%role ○ Psychoanalytic%Theory:%1 § Unconscious%motives%(sex/aggression)%and%conflict%between%ego,%id,% and%superego □ Id ® Primitive%component,%pleasure%principle ® Largely%unconscious □ Ego ® Decision%making,%reality%principle ® Largely%conscious □ Superego ® Moral,%social%standards

® Somewhat%conscious □ Most%of%the%time,%conflicts%among%them%are%settled%easily%and% relatively%non-consciously ○ Psychoanalytic%Theory:%2 § When%conflicts%are%not%settled,%people%use%defense%mechanisms%to% deal%with%anxiety%and%guilt □ These%mechanisms%and%developmental%fixations%can%result%in% long%term%behavioral%differences%(personality%differences) § Defense%mechanism □ Repression ® Keeps%distracting%thoughts%or%feelings%buried%in%the% unconscious ® Can%lead%to%Freudian%slips □ Rationalization ® Creating%plausible%but%false%excuses%to%justify%behavior □ Projection ® Attributing%one's%own%state%to%another □ Displacement ® Diversion%of%state%to%another%substitute%target □ Reaction%Formation ® Behaving%in%the%opposite%fashion%in%an%exaggerating%way □ Sublimation ® Redirecting%motive%toward%more%desirable% social%ends ○ NO%evidence%for%Freud's%theories%of%psychosexual%stages ○ BUT%Freud's%notions%that%are%behavior%arises%from%largely%non-conscious% processes%turns%out%to%be%true § Unconscious%isn't%very%interesting%as%he%thought ○ NONETHELESS%- psychoanalysis%continues%to%be%taught%as%therapeutic% approach,%despite%the%lack%of%evidence%of%value • Bandura ○ Social%Learning § Personality%dispositions%are%shaped%through%development%by% learning%and%experience § Environmental%influences/observational%learning § Early%experiences%shape%cognitive%expectancies □ Locus%of%control ® The%extent%to%which%believe%influential%forces%lie%within% or%outside%the%individual

® Internal%generally%healthier%than%external □ Self-efficacy ® Beliefs%about%self's%ability%and%competence;%Can%be% domain%specific ® High%self-efficacy%may%lead%to%greater%persistence%on% challenging%tasks

Humanistic Thursday,) November) 5,)2015

3:02)PM

• DON'T)place)much)emphasis)on)early)development,)but)free)will)and)growth ○ Individual)plays)major)role)in)shaping)own)personality ○ Self)actualizing)motive § Process)where)people)strive)to)fulfill)their)potential)for)personal)g grater)self-understanding ○ Seeking)Self-congruity § Ideal:)who)one)hopes)to)be § Ought:)who)one)think)one)should)be § Actual:)who)one)is)right)now

wth)through)

Origins:(Biological Thursday,' November' 5,'2015

2:15'PM

• Hippocrates'(1st'person'to'lay'out'a'theory) ○ Thought'balance'of'4''humours' ○ Theory'of'Temperamentum ○ Interesting § Differed'in'categorical' ways § Had'a'biological' basis ○ Modern''theory'of'Temperamentum''- study'of'temperament ○ Temperament:'differences'in'emotional'responding'that'vary • Temperament ○ Widely'studied ○ Highly'heritable ○ Measured'in'infancy ○ Activity/Emotionality/Sociability § Inhibited'temperament'(fear/shyness) ○ Stable'(though'can'change,'inhibited'can'and'do'sometimes'become' uninhibited) • Inherited? ○ Eysenck § Differences'in'extraversion'and'introversion'due'to'arousability □ Thought'to'be'a'primary'factor'in'temperament □ Extraverts ® Low'arousability,'seek'external'stimulation □ Introverts ® Higher'arousability,'avoid'external' stimulation ○ Gray § Differences'due'to'Behavioral'Inhibition'System'(BIS)'and'Behavioral' Activation'System'(BAS) □ Extraverts'BAS>BIS ® More'sensitive'to'rewards'than'punishments □ Introverts'BIS>BAS ® More'sensitive'to'punishment'than'rewards • Big 5: Genetic Basis

Big'5:'Genetic' Basis ○ Not'just'extraversion'is'inheritable ○ Can'still'change'based'on'environment'or'over'time

Thursday,+ November+ 5,+2015

1:57+PM

• Personality ○ Characteristics,+emotional+responses+and+ways+in+which+an+individual+ responds+to+the+environment ○ Differ+across+individuals+and+are+relatively+ consistent+across+time • Building+blocks ○ Traits • Where+does+personality+come+from? ○ Biological+theories ○ Development+theories § Attachment § Freudian § Social+Learning ○ Humanist+theories

Trait&Theories Thursday,* November* 5,*2015

2:10*PM

• Trait:*characteristic*and*stable*pattern*of*thought,*feeling,*or*behavior ○ Structuralist*notion • Big*5*(OCEAN*of*personality) ○ Openness*to*experience ○ Conscientiousness ○ Extraversion ○ Agreeableness ○ Neuroticism ○ Descriptive*model*of*personality § Dimensions*used*when*describing*others*or*themselves § Found*across*culture

Destructive*Obedience Tuesday,& Novem...