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8/20 Notes - Carmen Lee TAs: Hye Min Kim, Paul Sparks, Larry Xu Required Textbook/Readings ●

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The required textbook is: Singleton, R. A., Jr., & Straits, B. C. (2018). Approaches to social research (6th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ○ The textbook is available at the USC Bookstore (Buy or Rent), as well as through other vendors (e.g., Amazon.com, etc.). The book is also available in an etextbook format for rent (see Chegg Books, Vital Source,Amazon, etc.). ○ NOTE: I would suggest obtaining an e-book or rented version; these options are the most cost effective. You will definitely need access to the book (6th ed.) as readings are required. ○ A copy of the textbook will also be placed on reserve (2-hour checkout) at Leavey Library, Course Reserves. Additional required reading materials will be available to you on Blackboard (Bb) in PDF format. ○ The course Blackboard website is open!

Empirical Research in Communication Course Overview ● Become an intelligent consumer of research ○ Able to read, understand, explain and critically evaluate communication and other research reports in scholarly journals as well as in the popular press ● Understand quantitative research methods and statistical procedures employed in social scientific research ○ Communication ○ Psychology ○ Sociology Exams: ● each 15% of your grade (3 of them total to 45%) ● Multiple choice, T/F, and short answer ● Online review sessions through blackboard collaborate Benchmarks: ● Two benchmarks and 1 final research paper due 11/30/18 ● 1st due in 1 month ○ Literature and all about what is it that you want to investigate ○ What are the questions you’re asking and why are you asking those questions ○ What evidence you have that supports the assertion of your claim ○ Each benchmark is 10% of your grade ● Groups of 5-6 individuals ○ Score you receive includes a peer eval

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You can submit your final research paper as an individual or as a pair or as a complete group

Homework assignments are optional but encouraged ● Provides you with added material for studying the exams ● All 8 homeworks would be worth an exam ○ If the combined score is higher than one of your exams, the teacher will average them and it’ll pull your exam score up ○ People get 100% on the homeworks a lot because you have multiple tries ● Completion dates Sublimental website for class: https://www.statisticsbycarmen.com/ Password: Autumn2018 Study guide materials: ● Practice tests online that give you feedback

LECTURE MATERIAL STARTS HERE How do we know what we know? ● High school gpa range x SAT/ACT score (Boise State admission stats) ○ Grades/GPAs ■ Predicting success in terms of academics — numerical/quantitative ■ Brown University doesn’t use the same system ● Do their grading assessments in terms of ABC or Satisfactory/unsatisfactory ● Failing grades aren’t recorded ■ Different weights of a 4.0 at USC vs. a different school ○ Nutrition facts ■ numerical representations of carbs, fats, etc. ○ Efficiently saving money on gas for driving a car ○ Research in marketing that talks about the best colors for marketing ■ Red = exciting ■ Blue = competent ○ Kobe vs. Lebron - what stats matter? ■ Which evidence has more weight ● Most important attributes for the workplace: ○ Comm skills but also research and analytic skills ● Model of communication research** ○ Phase 1: conceptualization

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■ What could you research? Come up with the idea Phase 2: planning and designing research Phase 3: methodologies of …

Past Comm 301 projects: ● Social media ○ usage/self-esteem, impression management, influence on jealousy in romantic relationships ● Media portrayals ○ prevalence/stereotypes of latinx in film ○ sexualization/idealization in female bodies in chinese films ○ Race and aggression in pornography: content analysis ● Sports, branded content ● Music tempo effect on positive and negative emotions ● Readability and reading level in popular music lyrics ● Technology - self driving cars Idea: influence of branded/sponsored content from celebrities with dedicated followings

8/22 Notes Overview: ● Empiricism - way of knowing ● Paradigmatic assumptions ○ Differentiating quantitative and qualitative ● Quantitative approach defined ○ Types of quan. Research methods ○ Scientific inquiry (wheel of science) ● Model of communication research ○ Phase 1: conceptualization Lecture: ● Definition: Empiricism ○ Way of knowing that relies not on someone else’s opinion or tradition, but relies on direct or indirect experience ○ About the senses ⇒ we experience things through our senses ■ Sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch ■ Knowing things (validation) through either indirect or direct experience ○ Perspectives: ■ Rhetorical ● Critical analysis of public address ■ Qualitative ● Observing and interacting in natural environment ■ Quantitative

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● Systematic observation of hypothesized connections Paradigmatic assumptions ○ World view: guide how we make decisions and carry out research ○ A set of assumptions that interpret our world ○ Comes from the culture you were raised in or exposed to in terms of how you see relationship b/w individuals or how you see your role in life or whatnot ■ In research, its a set of assumptions/worldview that you have ■ You often won’t realize you have this until you explore and think why do you think the way that you do? ○ Assumptions in different areas ○ Compared on 3 paradigmatic assumptions ■ 1- ontology: view of reality ● What exists? [what is?] ■ 2- epistemology: knowledge and justification ● How do I know? ■ 3- axiology: values and ethics ● What is valuable? [what should be?] ○ Methodology: research process ^unpacking those 3 paradigmatic assumptions 1- ONTOLOGY: world view of reality; what exists? ○ Qualitative approach: ■ There is no “real” world external to individuals ○ Quantitative approach: ■ There is a “real” world external to the individual that exists 2- EPISTEMOLOGY: knowledge and justification; how do i know? ○ Qualitative approach: ■ Communication understood only from the perspective of the individuals communicating ■ No search for underlying regularities ○ Quantitative approach: ■ Attempts to explain and predict patterns of communication ■ Looks for regularities/patterns and causal relationship 3- AXIOLOGY: ethics and value; what is valuable? ○ Qualitative approach ■ Research is shaped by values (personal values) ○ Quantitative approach ■ Research should be value-free (no judgments/assertions of right/wrong or good/bad) “Positive change following trauma and adversity; a review” METHODOLOGY: method of inquiry ○ Qualitative approach ■ First-hand knowledge must be obtained; analysis of subjective accounts ■ Non-numerical ■ Ethnography participant observation focus groups

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Quantitative approach ■ Systematic protocol and scientific rigor ■ Numerical ■ Content analysis survey experiment QUANTITATIVE METHODS ○ Any approach that uses systematic observations to account for and generalize about human behavior ■ Systematic: when something is systematic it repeats itself; element of repetition ● Intentional; focuses, not haphazard ● Replicable; replicate to rule out “chance” ● Valid: measuring what you say you are measuring ■ Account for: ● Count and quantify ■ Generalize: ● draw inferences about larger group/population RESEARCH DESIGNS: QUANTITATIVE ○ CONTENT ANALYSIS ■ Research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of manifest content of communication ○ SURVEY ■ Involving the administration of questionnaires or interviews to relatively large groups of people ○ EXPERIMENTS ■ Research involving manipulation of the independent variables and researcher control over the events to which research participants are exposed Scientific inquiry ○ Description (what is) ■ Look for social regularities (ie. patterns) ■ Descriptive research - research intended to describe and organize social phenomena ○ Explanation (why it is) ■ Develop understanding of why pattern exists ■ Active form of observation ■ Explanatory research - research designed to test relationships (ie. hypotheses; cause-and-effect) ○ Prediction (what will be) ■ The better your explanation, the better your ability to predict ○ Control (what should be) ■ Prediction allows for control of conditions/situations The wheel of science ○ —> Theory —> hypotheses —> observation —> empirical generalizations —> ○ Up the sides ○

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○ ^induction ○ v deduction Model of communication research ○ Research design ■ Phase 1: conceptualization ■ Phase 2: planning and designing research ■ Phase 3: methodologies for conducting research ○ ■ Phase 4: dara collection ■ Phase 5: analyzing and interpreting data ■ Phase 6: re-conceptualization Origins of research topics ○ How do researchers pick a topic? ■ Study state of scientific discipline (follow-up answered Qs) ■ Social problem ■ Social premiums (hot topics get funding) ■ Personal experience (group memberships, daily observations) ■ Practical considerations (e.g., space, time, or money) ○ Overarching question or statement of the problem ■ What is it that you want to know? CONCEPTUALIZATION ○ Concept: an idea about, or label placed on, a phenomenon ■ General or abstract mental images ○ Conceptual definition: describes what a concept means by relating it to other abstract concepts. ■ “Dictionary definition” ROLE OF THEORY ○ Theory: an attempt to explain some aspect of social life; framework for understanding a phenomenon Examples: ○ For the following concept, give a: conceptual definition (what concept means to you?): ■ “Creepiness” ● Research study on the nature of creepiness

Research group: Sophia, Olivia, Suz, Claire, (Jill?) ● Who is behind a post and does that matter? ● Credibility? ● Influencers ● Intersection between gender and social media influencing ● Instagram * ○ Completely different literature/theories/hypthosis ○ Number of likes, followers, posts

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Hypothesis: ○ The higher A is, the higher or lower B is ○ 1- Have a lot of posts and classify them - content analysis ○ 2- Experiment —> whether or not you would purchase this ■ Manipulate ■ EXPERIMENTS ● Research involving manipulation of the independent variables and researcher control over the events to which research participants are exposed ■ If ads influence their desire to buy something ■ Two screenshots - 1 has 40k one has 3k ● People find the more followers more convincing ● # of followers is a positive predictor of the likelihood of a follower to buy sponsored content ■ Most practical - need a control ● Need to assume some people know this person and they have reputations —> not controllable ■ No way clicking on # of followers to actually check

Lecture 2: 8/27/18 Model of Communication Research ● Conceptualization ○ Form an idea about what needs to be studied ● Planning and designing reserarch ● Methodologies for conducting research ● Data collection ● Analyzing and interpreting data ● (Missed last phase)** Role of Theory ● Theory: a logically interconnected set of propositions that show how or why a relationship occurs ○ Framework for understanding phenomenon ○ Includes a set of concepts and their relationships ● Examples: ○ 1- Research content analysis article looking at hypersexuality of females in video games ■ Abstract (summary) they tell you they’re using social cognitive theory as a theoretical anchor ■ “SCT provides a theoretical grounding to understand how game players may learn…” ○ 2- Uncertainty reduction theory ■ Information seeking beyond initial reaction (negotiating relational uncertainty within close relationships)

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A theory is a good starting pt for understanding how a specific concept will work ● Theoretical models showing how concepts are linked to each other ○ Those links are easy, testable statements you can look at

PHASE 1 - Conceptualization: ● Concept = an idea about, or label placed on, a phenomenon. General or abstract mental images ○ Think of them in terms of a conceptual definition: describes what a concept means by relating it to other abstract concepts ■ “Dictionary” definition ■ Define what you mean by a concept **** —> good research articles do this ● Example: ○ For the following concept, give a: ■ Conceptual definition (i.e. what concept means to you?) ■ “Obsessive Relational Intrusion” ● Obsessive - frequent or recurring pattern ■ “Repeated and unwanted pursuit and invasion of one’s sense of physical or symbolic privacy by another person, either stranger or acquaintance, who desires and/or presumes an intimate relationship” ● It is, in short, a form of ongoing and unwanted pursuit of a relationship PHASE 2: Operationalization: ● Operational definition: describes a concept in terms of its observable and measurable characteristics or behaviors ○ Specification of observable characteristics of a concept ● Variables: measurable characteristics of concepts ○ Variable is any concept that can have two or more values/properties to it ○ Attempt to categorize a concept —> measure it ● Variables have different types ○ (levels) / amounts (quantities) ■ Honda: Accord, Civic, Prelude ○ Categories of a variable = attributes ○ example: ■ Concept = cisgender ■ Variables = biological sex, gender identity ■ Attributes = male, female … etc. VARIABLES CONT’D ● Main types of variables ○ Independent variable (IV) ■ Variable thought to influence changes in another variable

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■ Also known as input variable; predictor variable Dependent variable (DV) ■ Thought to be changed by the independent variable ■ The effect/consequence of something ■ Aka: outcome variable, criterion variable others: ○ Moderating variable ■ Affects the direction and/or the strength of the relationship between an IV and a DV ● Either strengthens or weakens the nature of the relationship ■ Influences the strength of the relationship between the IV and the DV ■ The IV and DV have a relationship but this other thing (mod variable) can intensify or weaken the relationship ■ **special type of Independent Variable** ■ Example: ● Media violence (IV) effect on aggressive behavior (DV) ○ Moderating variable is “Aggressiveness of viewer” ○ Mediating variable ■ Intervening variables ■ It explains the relationship between the IV and DV ■ Mediates to the extent that it accounts for the relationship between the predictor and criterion ● Explains the relationship between IV and DV ● Without the mediator variable, there is no relationship ■ Example: ● Exposure to alcohol ads —A> growth of alcohol use —B> problems due to alcohol use ● Mediating variable (in the middle of arrow A): liking of alcohol ads ○ Control variable ■ Held constant, or prevented from varying, during the course of observation and analysis ■ Any other variable that may affect the outcome ● Variables can be controlled in research design and data analysis ● Example: control for age, gender, ethnicity Research is about making connections between variables Examples: ○ 1- What is the effect of physical attractiveness on impressions of friendliness? ■ IV = physical attractiveness ■ DV = impressions of friendliness ○ 2- do men and women have different views about abortion? ■ IV = sex (levels of IV: men, women) ■ DV = views about abortion ○

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Types of Relationships ● Three main types (Research tells you what kind of relationship the variables have) ○ 1- Positive (direct) relationship ■ As X increases, Y increases: X decreases, Y decreases ■ (^^) or (vv) ○ 2- Negative (inverse) relationship ■ As X increases, Y decreases: X decreases, Y increases ■ (^v) or (v^) ○ 3- Curvilinear relationship: ■ a relationship that changes over the course of the two variables, either becoming positive (when negative) or negative (when positive) ■ Two types: ● Inverted U shaped curvilinear relationship ● U-shaped curvilinear relationship ■ Suggests that it looks like there might be a direct/inverse relationship but at a certain point, that starts to change and it goes the opposite direction ■ Ex: performance vs. amount of anxiety ● Too little anxiety, problematic (won’t perform well) ● An optimal amt of anxiety (highest performance) ● Too much anxiety (won’t perform well) ○ Inverted U shape 8/29/18 - Lecture ●

Announcements ○ Week 2: all members read suggested articles; locate other relevant articles based on interest ■ Read articles in detail to determine how variables of interest are connected; draw model; develop testable hypothesis/research questions ○ Week 3: write literature review (BM #1) ■ Benchmark 1 - Wed. September 12th by Midnight ■ Exam 1 - Mon Sept. 17th

(Cont’d aug 29) ●

Hypothesis: a tentative (testable) statement about the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variables ○ Hypothesis posed when: ■ Theoretical support (propositions or assertions) about relationship ■ Existing (significant) empirical evidence supporting connections ○ Hypothesis of association: predicts a relationship ■ Ex: there is a relationship between high school GPA and SAT scores ○ Hypothesis of difference: predicts a difference ■ Ex: men and women differ in amount of self-disclosure

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Hypothesis Cont’d ○ 1- Directional Hypothesis ■ Predict direction of relationship/difference (e.g., A & B positively related; males more than females) ■ One-tailed hypothesis ○ 2- Non-directional hypothesis ■ Does NOT predict direction of relationship/difference (e.g., A & B related; sex differences) ■ Two-tailed hypothesis

(missed two slides) ● Research Questions ○ A question posed about ‘relationships’ between variables ○ Within study, use RQ when… ■ When there is not theory or previous research ■ No clear research results from which to predict; conflicting findings ■ Usually occur when there is controversy ● Inconclusive results or no evidence to base anything on ● **probably won’t use one for our project** ○ Sample research question: ■ Do men and women differ in amount of self disclosure? ***(Writing Testable Hypothesis and Research Questions) —> Supplemental website on BB for handout that teaches you how to write testable hypotheses and research questions ***

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Never want to write a hypothesis when you say “music will affect mood” ○ Problem: too general ■ Mood has many subcontexts ■ Anytime you’re dealing with emotions or mood is not substantial enough

LECTURE 3: MEASUREMENT ● Class Outline ○ Types of measurement ■ Self-report, behavioral, etc. ■ Measurement Index vs. Scale ○ Levels of Measurement (N.O.I.R.) ■ Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio ● Operationalization ○ Conceptual definition: describes what a concept means by relating it to other abstract concepts ■ Dictionary definition ○ Operational definition: describes a concept in terms of its observable and measurable characteristics or behaviors ■ Allow us to specify observable characteristics of a concept

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Measurement ○ Measurement allows us to record and order in a systematic way observations of those ‘behavioral’ characteristics ○ EXAMPLE ■ Give an: Operational definition (i.e. what is a way you could measure that meaning in a study?) based on a given conceptual definition. ■ Come up with specific ways to measure (e.g., questions, behavior) ■ “Love” ● Level of attachment/feelings/thoughts about someone or something ■ Conceptual definition: a combination of affection/intimacy that may escalate depending on nature of the relationship ● Mutual connection measured by affection in verbal and nonverbal ways ○ Types of Measurement: ■ 1 Physiological measure ● Physical changes (heart rate, blood pressure, stress hormones) ● Advantageous if you’re interested in how the biological system works ○ Often is limited in resources and is very expensive ○ Health comm scholars ...