Macionis Chapter 01 PDF

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Summary

To be sure of a real cause-and-effect relationship, we must show:
Variables are correlated
The independent (causal) variable occurs before the dependent variable
There is no evidence that a third variable has been overlooked, causing a spurious correlation
...

Description

Sociological Perspective: Seeing the Strange in the Familiar • Why is it “normal” to eat the legs and embryos of chickens but not insects? • Why is it “normal” to make a crime out of a weed? • Why is it “normal” for some of us to use cosmetics to enhance our appearance but deviant for others of us to do so? The Sociological Perspective: Seeing the General in the Particular • Human behavior is not as individualistic as we may think. –

Why do people resist the idea that they act in socially patterned and predictable ways? 

Have you ever noticed how rigid norms of conformity can be in groups oriented to nonconformity?

The Sociological Perspective: Seeing Personal Choice in Social Context • Durkheim’s Study of Suicide –

Suicide rates can be predicted by looking at the characteristics of groups

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Social Integration – the degree to which people are tied to their social group. 

Higher suicide among whites and men reflect greater wealth and freedom

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Lower rate among women and people of color reflect limited social choices

Seeing Sociologically: Mills –

Making the Connection between the Individual and the Social

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C. Wright Mills (1959) 

Sociological Imagination: Private Troubles and Public Issues –

e.g. being unemployed: • Economy? Race? Class? Gender?

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Sociology shows us that our location in society profoundly affects our life experiences.

Social Change and Sociology • What striking transformations took place in 18th and 19th century Europe that drove the development of sociology?

• Dramatic transformations of the nature of social life –

Rise of a factory-based economy

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Explosive growth of cities

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New ideas about democracy and political rights

Science and Sociology • Auguste Comte (1798–1857)  –

French social thinker; coined the term “sociology”

Comte saw society as the product of three stages of historical development: 

Theological stage – God’s will

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Metaphysical stage – natural not supernatural

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Scientific stage –

Positivism – understanding the world based on the assumptions and methods of science.

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Successful in physical sciences; should be in social science

Sociological Theory • Theory –

A statement of how and why specific facts are related

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Job of sociological theory 

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Explain the nature of society and social behavior in the real world

Sociologists conduct research to test and refine their theories

Sociological Theory • Two basic questions in building theory –

What are the most important things to look at? 

Order and consensus?

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Conflict and change?

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Social Processes?

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How should we connect facts?

Sociological Theory • Theoretical Approach –

A basic image of society that guides thinking and research 

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It serves as a roadmap.

Three major theoretical approaches 

Structural-functionalism (order and consensus)

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Social-conflict theory (conflict and change)

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Symbolic Interactionism (social processes)

Structural-Functionalism • Sees society as a complex system (structure) whose parts work together (function) to maintain stability • Social Structure –

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Any relatively stable pattern of social behavior 

Institutions and their arrangement

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Economy, polity, family, education, religion, etc.

Features interconnectedness and interrelatedness

Structural-Functionalism • Social Functions –

The consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society as a whole

• Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) –

Expanded understanding of social function 

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Pointed out that any aspect of social structure has many functions

Distinguished between manifest functions and latent functions

• Manifest Functions –

The recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern

• Latent Functions –

The unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern

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What are some manifest and latent functions of our nation’s higher education programs?

• Social Dysfunction –

Any social pattern that might disrupt the operation of society

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Are gangs dysfunctional?

(Social) Conflict Theory • Sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change 

Assumes that those in positions of power use that power to maintain, enhance and legitimate their position

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Assumes that the ongoing struggle between haves and have-nots fosters change and propels society forward –

Emphasizes differences based on class, race, ethnicity, gender, age

• “Without struggle there can be no progress.” Frederick Douglass Feminism and the Conflict Theory • Gender-conflict –

A point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men

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Gender-conflict approach is closely linked to feminism

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The advocacy of social equality for women and men

Race-Conflict Approach • A point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories –

Dominant racial/ethnic groups construct cultural beliefs of their own superiority and the innate inferiority of subordinate groups

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Dominant groups shape the structure and functioning of institutions to maintain their dominance

Macro/Micro Level Theory • Structural-functional and Conflict theory share a macro-level orientation –

Broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole (SF and Conflict)

• Symbolic Interaction uses a micro-level orientation –

A close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations

Max Weber • Identified the problem of “meaning” –

Remember Comte? 

Success of physical science applied to society

• Weber - Social science is different from physical science because social action is meaningful to the actor • We must understand that meaning to understand social action –

Verstehen method – (participant observation)

Symbolic Interaction • Symbolic Interaction –

Sees society as socially constructed through the everyday interactions of individuals 

We socially construct reality through the process of the attribution of meaning to symbols –

Society is the reality people construct as they interact with one another and themselves

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Social reality is essentially an implicit agreement

Sociological Research • Three ways to do sociological research –

Scientific or Positivist

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Interpretive or Interactionist

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Critical

Scientific Sociology • Science –

A logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation and measurement

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Assumes cause and effect relationships and seeks empirical evidence

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Empirical Evidence 

Information we can verify with measurement –

A scientific orientation often challenges what we accept as “common sense” • The earth really is round and orbits the sun. • Anthropogenic climate change is real and a serious threat. • More severe punishment increases re-offense • Crime is functional for society

Concepts, Variables, and Measurement –

Concept 

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Variable 

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A concept that changes in value from case to case

Measurement 

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A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form

Determining the value of a variable in a specific case

Operationalize a variable 

Specifying exactly how to measure it

• Correlation and Cause Correlation –

A relationship in which two (or more) variables change together

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Not just how variables change but which variable changes the other

• Inferring Cause –

A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another 

Difficult to do; other potential factors?

• Scientists refer to the assumed cause as –

Independent Variable

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And the assumed effect as

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Dependent Variable 

Understanding cause and effect is valuable • Allows researchers to predict how one pattern of behavior will produce another

• Spurious or False Correlation –

When two variables change together but neither one causes the other 

Usually results from a third factor

• To be sure of a real cause-and-effect relationship, we must show: –

Variables are correlated

–

The independent (causal) variable occurs before the dependent variable

–

There is no evidence that a third variable has been overlooked, causing a spurious correlation...