Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity PDF

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Overview of the lecture 

Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity

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Pathological Forms of Organic Division of labour

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Anomie

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Critiques of Durkheim

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Durkheim’s Legacy

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Merton and Anomie

Mechanical society vs organic society

Mechanical society

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Small population

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Religious societies, beliefs in the sacred

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Repressive law

Pre-modern societies Simple Division of Labour Homogenous Solidarity based on likeliness and unity

Collective consciousness defines deviancy and crime, and it is reproduced through harsh punishment.

Organic Society

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Large population Modern, Industrial societies Complex Division of Labour Heterogeneous Solidarity based on mutual interdependency Secular societies, beliefs in the (secular) sacred Restitutive law Collective consciousness underpins the definitions of deviancy and crime and it is reproduced through (often) lenient punishment.

Organic Solidarity 

Mechanical Solidarity and Organic Solidarity as analytical constructs.

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Organic division of labour may not always produce social solidarity.

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Pathological forms of the organic division of labour o

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Anomic and forced division of labour

Anomic and forced division of labour result in social problems, including crime.

Pathological forms of the organic Division of labour 1) The Anomic Division of labour 

Consequences: Lack of moral and social connection among individuals, lack of shared goals in the society

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Cause: Lack of regulation. Forms of regulation (moral, legal, economical, social) are not appropriate for the types of social organization.

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Examples:

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Rapid Social Transition

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Economic crises

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The imbalance between production and consumption

The conflict between labour and capital

Pathological forms of the organic Division of labour  Sometimes considered anomic division of labour. 2) The forced division of labour: 

Similarly results in anomie

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Stronger emphasis on the long-term, structural causes of anomie.

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Inherited wealth and other privileges

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Wealthy families dominate higher level positions in society not because of merit, talent or hard work, but because of their inherited privilege.

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They also tend to lower rank due to not working hard and all.

True Organic Solidarity requires: 

The continuing development of the division of labour.

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Remedy anomic division of labour:

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Better interaction and communication among individuals o

Creating social places.

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New forms of shared goals and beliefs (e.g. belief in a just society)

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New forms of moral behavior (e.g. gift relation) rather than egoistic relations

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State playing an active role of enabler and coordinator.

True organic solidarity requires:

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Remedy forced division of labour: the appropriation, redistribution and abolition of inherited wealth.

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ED: Sharing some ideals of socialism, without being a socialist

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True Meritocracy Substantial reforms rather than a revolution Slow and orderly transformation

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21 Century Debates on Wealth Redistribution

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Thomas Piketty (2014) o

Global Tax on Wealth

Two Definition of Anomie

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The Anomic Division of Labour in The Division of Labour in Society (1893): Lack of regulation

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Anomic Suicide in Suicide (1897): Anomic Suicide. 

Stronger emphasis on insufficient regulation of human desires during periods of anomie, rather than insufficient regulation of social elements (e.g. economic institutions).

Anomie: Human Desires 

Insufficient regulation of human desires during periods of anomie.

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Human desires are unregulated both in times of economic downturn and rapid economic growth. 

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ED: Human beings have unlimited desires, which may not be restrained by a moral order during economic growth.

Forced division of labour creates chronic anomie 

The lack of social regulation in division of labour

Anomie and Property Crime

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Anomic division of labour and property crime 

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Economic crisis and rising unemployment may motivate property crime.

Anomie in human desires and property crime 

During economic crisis people may not satisfy their desires and commit property crime

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During times of rapid economic growth or (perceived) opportunity, individuals might pursue their unlimited desires and commit property crime. o

E.g. Shoplifting, white-collar crime, environmental crime

o

Relative Deprivation

Durkheim's method: His Positivism 

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Sociological positivism 

Social facts are objective realities that exist independently of individuals. They can be scientifically studied.

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E.g. Anomic Division of Labour

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Quantitative methods (statistics) to measure and compare social facts.

In these respects, ED was a positivist.

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Sociological positivism in criminology: criminal behavior is determined by social factors and can be studied scientifically.

Durkheim's Method: His Social Constructionism 

ED also examines the social construction of social facts and their subjective internalization. 

Collective consciousness

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Crime and deviancy are social constructions, defined by the collective consciousness of the community, rather than simply objectively discoverable phenomena.

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Positivism is not interested in the social construction of meaning.

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Most positivists follow the legalistic definition of crime.

Criticism & assessment of Durkheim 1: Historical Inaccuracies

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Not all pre-modern societies had simple division of labour and strict religious unity.

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Competing legal traditions existed at the same time 

E.g. In Early Modern Europe community law (restitutive sanctions) and state law (repressive sanctions) co-existed. ED uses the concepts of mechanical and organic solidarity more as analytical categories

Critiques of Durkheim 2: Cometing froups and power Differentials in society 

ED did not put emphasis on competing moral projects of different groups. 

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Some policies might be perceived as moral by some groups, and immoral by others (e.g. same-sex marriage).

Process of power struggle 

Powerful groups, elites or the state may impose a certain moral order from above.

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ED ignores power differentials in society in the field of moral order (not so much in economic order).

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Labelling Theory

Critiques of Durkheim 3: Alternative Explanation of criminal Behaviour

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ED recognized that anomie is not the only source of crime, but he did not put emphasis on alternative explanations (e.g. rational or opportunistic motivations, biological factors). ED’s theory is a macro-sociological explanation of crime.  Specific characteristics or decisions of criminals might go unnoticed. A Durkheimian response: social factors frame individual decisions.

Critiques of Durkheim 4: Process of Punishemnt 

In modern societies, popular sentiments may not play a direct role in the process of punishment.

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Durkheimian Response: public sentiments still influence the punishment process indirectly 

Juries

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General context of support for certain laws and techniques of punishment

Critiques of Durkheim 5: Social Function of punishment 

Public may not have strong feelings about certain crimes 

E.g. parking violations.

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“We feel no urge to protest against fishing and hunting in the close season, or against overloaded vehicles on the public highway” (Durkheim 1994: 65).

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Primacy of restitutive law in modern societies

Feminist Criticism 

ED held patriarchal views on women's ‘nature’ 

Sexual Division of Labour

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Contradiction in his theory o

Social facts or biological ‘facts’?

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The influence of Lombroso

Durkheim Influence 

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ED’s work laid the foundation of sociological approaches to crime and deviance. 

Anomie and Social Structure (Robert Merton)

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Strain Theories

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Chicago School of Criminology

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Control Theories

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Labelling Theory

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More!

Selective usage of Durkheim by criminologists

Durkheim's Legacy: Wayward Puritans (1966) 

Wayward Puritans (1966) by Kai Erikson, 

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Collective consciousness, crime, deviance and punishment in a Puritan colony in 17th century Massachusetts.

Three ”crime waves” attributed to Antinomians, Quakers and witches. 

Salem Witch Trials (22.15-25.00) o

Social and political instability

Wayward Puritans: Conclusion 

Acts that violate the morals of the society are defined as criminal

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Powerful groups (e.g. Church leaders) have more influence (Note: ED did not put emphasis on power differentials).

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Definitions of deviance and crime change according to society’s characteristics and needs.

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Punishment solidifies the bonds between the members and establishes the community’s boundaries. Community defines itself by what it is not.

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The volume of deviance and punishment remains relatively constant, even during ‘crime waves’.

Robert meton, anomie

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Revised ED’s anomie to explain criminal behavior in the US society.

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Criminal behavior is imposed to individuals by the (anomic) social structure.

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Anomie occurs when culturally motivated human desires are not regulated by the society.

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American culture encourages wealth accumulation as a life goal. Wealth is a sign of social status.

Robert merton, anomie 

Revised ED’s anomie to explain criminal behavior in the US society.

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Criminal behavior is imposed to individuals by the (anomic) social structure.

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Anomie occurs when culturally motivated human desires are not regulated by the society.

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American culture encourages wealth accumulation as a life goal. Wealth is a sign of social status.

Robert merton. Anomie 2 

Disjuncture between culturally prescribed goals and institutionalized means for attaining these goals

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Culturally prescribed goal: wealth accumulation

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Institutionalized means: hard-work, strong work ethic, education, rational thinking and planning. 

The discourse of meritocracy and equality

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The difficulty or impossibility of achieving the cultural goal through institutionalized means

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Anomie: the contradiction between culture and social structure. 

Strain and crime....