Media Studies Textbook Chapter 5 Outline PDF

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CHAPTER 5: POPULAR RADIO AND THE ORIGINS OF BROADCASTING -

Though TV replaced radio, radio has adapted/specialized

→ EARLY TECHNOLOGY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RADIO -

Radio didn’t emerge as a full blown medium until the 1920s (technology that made radio possible had been evolving for years

Telegraph: invented in the 1840s, it sent electrical impulses through a cable from a transmitter to a reception point, transmitting morse code; precursor or radio technology - Revolutionary tech, but had limitations - Dispatched complicated language codes but not the human voice - Ships at sea still didn’t have contact with the people on land - By 1861 telegraph lines ran coast to coast (transatlantic cable - 1866) - Needed a telegraph WITHOUT wires Morse code: a system of sending electrical impulses from a transmitter through a cable to a reception point; developed by the inventor Samuel Morse (a series of dots and dashes that stood for letters in the alphabet) MAXWELL AND HERTZ DISCOVER RADIO WAVES - Key development in wireless transmission = james maxwell who theorized idea about electromagnetic waves (he believed that a portion of these waves could be harnessed so signals could be sent from a transmission point to a reception point like the telegraph, but without wires) - Heinrich Hertz who proved the theories (created device that emitted waves as electricity jumped the gap ● 1st recorded transmissio Electromagnetic waves: invisible electronic impulses similar to visible light; electricity, magnetism, light, broadcast signals, and heat are part of such waves, which radiate in space at the speed of light, about 186,000 miles per second Radio waves: a portion of the electromagnetic wave spectrum that was harnessed so that signals could be sent from a transmission point and obtained at a reception point MARCONI AND THE INVENTORS OF WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY -

Guglielmo Marcon tried to make wireless technology practical Got patent for wireless telegraphy (voiceless point to point communication) Formed Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company (British Marconi) → installed it on naval/private commercial ships Saw it as point-to-point communication, not a one-to-many form of communication

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Confined his application to morse code messages for ships/military Work of Popov/Marconi was preceded Nikola Tesla (but Marconi overshadowed Tesla’s work

Wireless telegraphy: the forerunner of radiom it is a form of voiceless point-to-point communication; it preceded the voice and sound transmissions of one-to-one mass communication that became known as broadcasting WIRELESS TELEPHONY: DE FOREST AND FESSENDEN - Problem that would persist through radio’s early development: noise and interference from competition for the finite supply of radio frequencies - De Forest set up Wireless Telephone Company to compete w Marconi → interested in wireless voice/music transmissions (wireless telephony) and radio - Biggest breakthrough was the Audion vacuum tube (detected radio signals and then amplified them) ● Increased listeners’ ability to hear dots and dashes and later speech and music ● Modifications were essential to development of voice transmission, long distance radio and tv ● Not credited , but is considered by historians to be the beginning of modern electronics - 1st broadcast = canadian engineer reginald fessenden (dec 24, 1906) ● Showed that wireless medium was moving from a point-to-point communication tool toward a one-to-many communication tool ● Narrowcasting → broadcasting Wireless telephony: early experiments in wireless voice and music transmissions, which later developed into modern radio Broadcasting: the transmission of radio waves or TV signals to a broad public audience Narrowcasting: any specialized electronic programming or media channel aimed at a target audience REGULATING A NEW MEDIUM: - 2 most important international issues affecting radio in first decade of 20th century 1. Ship radio requirements 2. Signal interference - Wireless ship act (1910) → required that all major US seagoing ships carrying 50+ passengers and travelling 200+ miles off the coast be equipped with a 100 mile range (important w/ Titanic) RADIO WAVES AS A NATURAL RESOURCE: - After Titanic tragedy congress passed the radio act of 1912 Radio act of 1912: the first radio legislation passed by Congress; it addressed the problem of amateur radio operators cramming the airwaves

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Because radio waves crossed state/national borders, legislators determined that broadcasting constituted a “natural resource” (interstate commerce) ● led to the idea that radio (and later TV) should provide a benefit to society (in the form of education and public service → led to establishment of public radio stations and fairness doctrine Meant that radio waves could not be owned → became collective property of all americans (like national parks) Transmitting on radio waves now required licensing from the commerce department This act governed radio until 1927 → formally adopted the SOS morse code distress signal

THE IMPACT OF WORLD WAR 1: - 1915, 90 affiliates snagged from NBC -1949, CBS surpassed NBC (talent and otherwise)

BRINGING ORDER TO CHAOS WITH THE RADIO ACT OF 1927: - Battle for more frequency space and less channel interference intensified in 1920s (ppl demanded action) ● Many wanted more regulation than simple licensing under Radio Act of 1912 (gave commerce department little power to deny a license/unclog airways) - Commerce secretary herbet hoover ordered radio stations to set aside certain frequencies for entertainment/news and farm/weather reports ● Court decided he couldn’t restrict stations from operating ● Clogged airways in opposition; barely any good radio for a while, sales of radio declined because the sound was so shitty Radio Act of 1927: the second radio legislation passed by Congress; in an attempt to restore order to the airwaves, the act stated that licenses did not own their channels but could license them if they operated to serve the “public interest, convenience, or necessity” ● Federal Radio Commission (FRC): a body established in 1927 to oversee radio licenses and negotiate channel problems Communication Act of 1934: the far-reaching act that established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the federal regulatory structure for US broadcasting Federal Communications Commission (FCC): an independent US government agency charged with regulating interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, cable, and the Internet

Act

Provisions

effects

Wireless ship act of 1910

Required US seagoing ships carrying more than 50 passengers and traveling more than 200 miles off the coast to be equipped w wireless equipment with a 100 mile range

Saed lives at sea (including more than 700 rescued by ships responding to the Titanic’s distress signals 2 years later)

Radio act of 1912

Required radio operators to obtain a license,

Federal government began to assert control over radio. Penalties were established for stations that interfere w/ other stations signals

Radio act of 1927

Established the FRC as a

First expressed the

temporary agency to oversee licenses and negotiate channel assignments

now-fundamental principles that licenses did not own their channels but could only license them as long as they operated to serve the “public interest, convenience, or necessity”

Communications act of 1934

Established the FCC to replace the FRC . FCC regulated radio, telephone, telegraph, later tv, cable, internet

Congress tacitly agreed to a system of advertising-supported commercial broadcasting despite concerns of the public

Telecommunications act of 1966

Eliminated most radio and tv station ownership rules, some dating back more than 50 years

Enormous national/regional station groups formed, dramatically changing the sound and localism of radio in the US

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Outlaw of option time in 1941 Fcc demanded RCA sell one of two NBC networks (they sold NBC blue for 8 mill and it became ABC (American Broadcasting Company)) Brought reform to radio but not soon enough to prevent damage to noncommercial radio

THE GOLDEN AGE OF RADIO - Many tv programs on tv today were initially formulated for radio ● 1st weather forecasts/farm reports on radio began 1920s ● Radio news analysis began 1927 ● Network news analysis 1930 EARLY RADIO PROGRAMMING: - Early on only a handful of stations operated in most large radio markets (had fav programs, orchestras, quiz shows, etc) - Most radio programs had a single sponsor that created and produced each show - The network distributed these programs live around the country → charging each sponsor advertising fees - Many shows were named after the sole sponsor’s product RADIO PROGRAMMING AS A CULTURAL MIRROR: - Situation comedy launched in radio in mid 1920s (now a staple on tv) - Most popular was Amos n Andy (stereotyped black characters as shiftless/stupid) ● Launched the idea of a serial show that would be copied by soap operas/other radio dramas ● Most popular radio show in history ● First tv series to have an entirely black cast ● Cancelled in 1953 w/ strengthening Civil Rights movement

Serial show: a program that featured continuing story lines from one day to the next THE AUTHORITY OF RADIO: - FCC called for stricter warnings before/during programs that imitated the style of radio news after the most famous broadcast of all time (war of the world martian invasion novel 1938 halloween) caused panic among many people because they missed the opening disclaimer → RADIO REINVENTS ITSELF - Arrival of TV in 1950s marks the only time in media’s history where a new medium stole virtually every national programming/advertising strategy from and older medium (tv stole radio’s advertisers, program genres, celebs, audiences, etc) - Radio adapted and survived (important to recognize in today’s age as books and news have to adapt to digital formats) - Adaptive technology and program content TRANSISTORS MAKE RADIO PORTABLE: - Key development in radio’s transition was invented by Bell Laboratories in 1947 → transistors Transistors: invented by Bell Laboratories in 1947, these tiny pieces of technology, which receive and amplify radio signals, make portable radio possible - Like vacuum tubes - Used less power and produced less heat than vacuum tubes (more durable/cheap) - Tiny - Revolutionized hearing aids - Led to today’s integrated circuits (replacing bulky/delicate tubes) - Let radio go where television could not (by 1960s most radio listening took place outside of the home) THE FM REVOLUTION AND EDWIN ARMSTRONG ; - FM enabled radio receivers to pick up distant signa;es (rendered huge alternators to generate power obsolete) → invented in 20s/30s by armstrong - FCC moved FM’s frequency spaces to a new band on electromagnetic spectrum (made 400,000 prewar FM receiver sets useless) → pushed by RCA (edwin armstrong killed himself) - Expansion of FM represented one of the main ways that radio survived the advent of TV FM (frequency modulation): a type of radio and sounds transmission that offers static-less reception and greated fidelity and clarity than AM radio by accentuating the pitch or distance between radio waves AM (amplitude modulation): a type of radio and sound transmission that stresses the volume or height of radio waves THE RISE OF FORMAT AND TOP 40 RADIO:

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Radio’s dependency on recorded music became a necessity and helped the medium survive the 1950s (invention of TV) 1949 = experimentation w format radio As format grew, program directors combined deejay talk w/ music ; management carefully coordinates each hour dictating what the deejay will do (hot clock that deejays must follow) 1 hr = 12 songs, ads, news, weather, talk Time blocks programmed through ratings research according to who was listening Many deejays quit when it was introduced (considered it an art form not a science) Program director’s position (more revenue) triumphed over deejays

Format radio (formula driven radio): the concept of radio stations developing and playing specific styles (or formats) geared to listener’s age, race, or gender; in format radio, management, rather than deejays, controls programming choices Rotation: in format radio programming, the practice of playing the most popular or best-selling songs many times throughout the day Top 40 format: the first radio formation, in which stations played the 40 most popular hits in a given week, as measured by record sales RESISTING THE TOP 40: - Expansion of FM in mid 60s created room for experimenting (w/ blues, classical, jazz and non top 40 songs) - Progressive rock emerged as an alternative to conventional formats (noncommercial stations broadcasting from college campuses rejecting commercialism associated with Top 40) - Experimental FM stations (commercial and noncommercial) offered a cultural space for hard-edges political folk music and for rock music that commented on the Civil Rights movement and protested America’s involvement in the Vietnam War. - By 1970s, progressive rock was copied, tamed, absorbed by mainstream radio under format album-oriented rock - 1980s → AOR turned white and less political Progressive rock: an alternative music format that developed as a backlash to the popularity of the Top 40 Album-oriented rock (AOR): the radio music format that features album cuts from mainstream rock bands → THE SOUNDS OF COMMERCIAL RADIO -

Listeners today ● More than 40 stations, local deejays are stars at most station ● Has become a secondary/background medium

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● Peak listening is during drive time ● Stations are more specialized today Listeners in 1930s ● Tuned in to their favorite shows at set times ● Peak listening time occurred during the evening hours (prime time)

Drive time: in radio programming, the periods between 6 and 10 a.m and 4 and 7 p.m, when people are commuting to and from work or school; these periods constitute the largest listening audience of the day FORMAT SPECIALIZATION: -

Stations use a variety of formats based on managed program logs & day parts 40 + diff radio formats (and variations) serve diverse listeners To please advertisers, formats usually target audiences (according to age, gender, etc) ex/ adult contemporary, news/talk/info, all sports, contemporary christian, etc Enables advs to reach smaller target audiences at lower costs than for TV Targeting listeners has become very competitive

NEWS, TALK, AND INFORMATION RADIO: -

Fastest growing through 90s Today more than 2,000 stations carry this format (more than any others) Most dominant format on AM radio, 2nd most popular in the nation Works to target working/middle class adult consumers

news/talk/information: the fastest-growing radio format in the 1990s, dominated by news programs and talk shows MUSIC FORMATS: Adult contemporary (AC): one of the oldest and most popular radio music formats, typically featuring a mix of news, talk, oldies, and soft rock Contemporary hit radio (CHR): originally called Top 40 Radio, this radio format encompasses everything from hip-hop to children’s songs; it appeals to many teens and young adults Country: claiming the largest number of radio stations in the US, this radio format includes such subdivisions as old-time, progressive, country-rock, western swing, and country-gospel - Many stations are in tiny markets where country is traditionally the default format for communities w/ one radio station Urban contemporary: one of radio’s more popular formats, primarily targeting African American listeners in urban areas with dance, R&B, and hip-hop music

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Many formats appeal to particular ethnic/racial groups

NONPROFIT RADIO AND NPR: - Road to viability of NPR in US hasn’t been easy ● Wagner-Hatfield Amendment to 1934 Communications act tried to set aside 25% of radio for a variety of nonprofit stations but was defeated in 1935 ● Many NPR stations sold out to for profit stations during Great Depression ● Remaining stations were often banished from air during prime hours or assigned weak signals by federal regulators who favored commercial owners/lobbying agents THE EARLY YEARS OF NONPROFIT RADIO: - Two gov rulings (both 1948) aided nonprofit radio 1. Gov began authorizing noncommercial licenses to stations not affiliated with labor, religious, or civic groups (1st license went to founded of Pacifica Foundation) 2. FCC approved 10-watt FM stations (took very little $ to operate, allowed more people to participate) → students, etc Pacifica Foundation: a radio broadcasting foundation established in Berkeley, California by journalist and World War 2 pacifist Lewis Hill; in 1949, Hill established KPFA, the first nonprofit community radio station CREATION OF THE FIRST NONCOMMERCIAL NETWORKS: - During 1960s, non profit broadcasting found a congress sympathetic to an old idea: using radio and tv as educational tools - First noncommercial networks created (NPR & PBS) National Public Radio (NPR): noncommercial radio established in 1967 by the US congress to provide an alternative to commercial radio Public Broadcasting Service (PBS): noncommercial television established in 1967 by the US congress to provide an alternative to commercial television -

Under provisions of the PB Act of 67 and CPB, NPR/PBS were mandated to provide alternatives to commercial broadcasting

Public Broadcasting Act of 1967: the act by the US congress that established the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, which oversees the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and National Public Radio (NPR) Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB): a private, nonprofit corporation created by Congress in 1967 to funnel federal funds to nonprofit radio and public television -

Has faced threats of losing federal funding over the years/waning gov support

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Become more reliant on private donations/corporate sponsorship (might create biases in content expelled) Nonprofit has adapted the format style (place for tradition/experimentation/programs that don’t draw enough listeners for commercial success

NEW RADIO TECHNOLOGIES OFFER MORE STATIONS: -

2 alternative radio techniques have helped expand radio beyond traditional AM/FM bands → bring more diverse sounds to listeners

1. SATELLITE RADIO: -

Series of satellites launched to cover continental US → creating subscription based service Two companies (XM/Sirius) completed national introduction 2002 and merged in 2008 New cars now equipped w/ satellite band to promote further adoption Satellite radio: pay radio services that deliver various radio formats nationally via satellite

2. HD RADIO: - Available since 2004 - Provides program data (artist name/title, tag songs for playlists for purchases, etc) HD radio: a digital technology that enables AM and FM radio broadcasters to multicast two to three additional compressed digital signals within their traditional analog frequency RADIO AND CONVERGENCE: - Moving into the future by converging with the internet - Allows for more variety in radio - Podcasts bring back storytelling, instructional programs, local topics of interest, etc that were missing in corporate radio - Bringing radio back to its roots INTERNET RADIO: - Emerged in 1990s w the popularity of the web - Came in two types 1. Involves an existing AM, FM, satellite, HD station “streaming” a simulcast version of its on-air signal over the web (apps, etc) 2. One that is created exclusively for the Internet (pandora, 8tracks, etc) Internet radio: online radio stations that either “stream” simulcast versions of on-air radio broadcasts over the web or are created exclusively for the Internet -

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