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Memory - Summary Notesverywellmind/what-is-memory-The more similar experience we had, the more our memory deteriorate.Memory is the process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present. T...

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Memory - Summary Notes https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-memory-2795006 The more similar experience we had, the more our memory deteriorate. Memory is the process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage and retrieval. Memory is active, some past experience that you encounter has an effect on the way you think or behave now and in the future (Joordens, 2011). Memory: Sensory Memory, Short-term/Working Memory, Long-term Memory Sensory Memory: very short-term memories about perceptions of the world through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste. Appraise the difference between short-term memory (STM) and working memory Short-term Memory: - The system involves storing small amounts of information for a brief period of time (Baddeley et al., 2009) - Can only store 7 plus or minus 2 bits (7+/- 2) of information at a time (page 172) - Information stays for about 10-15 secs if we don’t repeat constantly, and decays spontaneously or is forgotten due to interference from new information entering the STM store. - By chunking information into large bits, can increase the capacity of STM to store larger chunks of information. (page 174) E.g F B I E R P L T A -> FBI ERP LTA - Short term memory is the window on the present. Change detection is a procedure to measure the capacity of STM, it has been used with simpler stimuli to determine how much information a person can retain from a brief. The task is easier when the number of items is within the capacity of STM (7+/- 2) but becomes harder when the number of items becomes greater than the capacity of STM! (Steven Luck and Edward Vogel, 1997) page 173 - 174.

STM VS WM Short-term memory is concerned mainly with storing information for a brief period but working memory is concerned with the manipulation of information that occurs during complex cognitive such as remembering numbers while reading a paragraph. Working memory involves the manipulation of information. Working memory not only store information but also for active processes like understanding conversations or solving mental sums. Working Memory: working memory model that was put forward by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) to address the shortcomings of the short-term memory model. Increasingly, working memory may just replace short-term memory in the modal model of memory (Zimbardo, Johnson, & Hamilton, 2014). Modal model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) Textbook page 166: 3 types of memory: 1. Sensory memory 2. Short-term memory 3. Long-term memory

Rehearsal: a control process: repeating the stimulus over and over again Other examples of control process of rehearsal such as (1) having a strategy to make the stimulus more memorable such as relating the digits of your password to a familiar date in history. And, (2)strategies of attention that help you focus on information that is important or interesting.

Apply the working memory model to explain the various memory functions Page 167

Provide empirical evidence for the various components of working memory (page 178-179) Baddeley found that participants are able to read while simultaneously remembering numbers. [the ability to carry two tasks at once] **Various component of working memory are Central Executive, Visuospatial Sketchpad, Phonological Loop

Phonological Loop: - Consist of 2 components: phonological store (limited capacity and holds information only for a few seconds), articulatory rehearsal process (responsible for rehearsal to prevent the information kept in the phonological store from decaying) - Holds verbal and auditory information. [e.g trying to remember a person’s name or understand what your friend is talking about = using phonological loop] Visuospatial sketch pad: - Holds visual and spatial information. [ e.g when you are forming a picture in your mind or do tasks like solving a puzzle or finding your way around the campus = using visuospatial sketch pad] Central Executive: - phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad are attached to central executive. - Where major work for working memory occurs. - Pulls information from LTM and coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad by focusing on specific parts of a task and deciding how to divide attention between different tasks. - “Traffic cop” of working memory system.

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E.g you are driving in a strange city, and your friend is reading you the directions to the restaurant, and the car radio is broadcasting the news. Your phonological loop is taking in the verbal directions; your visuospatial sketch pad is helping you to visualise a map of the streets leading to the restaurant; and your central executive is coordinating and combining these two kinds of information. Might help you to ignore irrelevant information so that you can focus your attention on your tasks.

3 phenomena that support the idea of a system specialised for Language Phonological Loop: - Phonological Similarity Effect - the confusion of letters or words that sound the same (Conrad, 1964). Page 179 -

Word Length Effect - occurs when memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words because it takes more time to pronounce and rehearse longer words and to produce them during recall (Baddeley et al., 1984) . Page 179 A study found that people are able to recall the number of items that they can pronounce in about 1.5 - 2.0 seconds (Baddeley et al., 1975). The number you can say should be close to your digit span.

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Articulatory Suppression - repetition of an irrelevant sound that results in articulatory suppression, which reduces memory because speaking interferes with rehearsal. Articulatory suppression makes it difficult to remember the list because repeating “the, the, the” overloads the phonological loop which is responsible for holding verbal and auditory information. Also, not only reduces the ability to remember the list of words, it also eliminates the word length effect. By right, shorter words are easier to recall as shorter words leave more space in the phonological loop for rehearsal. However, eliminating rehearsal by saying “the the the” removes this advantage for short words, therefore, both short and long words are lost from the phonological store. (Baddeley et al., 1884) page 180

The Visuospatial Sketch Pad: - Handles visual and spatial information and thus involves the process of visual imagery. Visual imagery is creating visual images in the mind without physical visual stimulus (imagination) Page: 180-181 -

Comparing objects - Reaction time was longer for greater differences in orientation (e.g rotate 40 degree takes 2 seconds to identify if both shapes are the same, rotate 140 degree takes 4 seconds to identify if both shapes are the same.) (Shepard & Metzler, 1971)

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Solving the problem by rotating an image of one object in their mind is called mental rotation.

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Mental rotation is an example of the operation of visuospatial sketch pad because it involves visual rotation through space.

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Recalling Visual Patterns (Della Sala and co-workers, 1999) - code verbally is difficult, but completing the pattern depends on visual memory. [page 182]

Central Executive: - It is a control centre of the working memory system. Is a component that makes working memory “work”. -

Its purpose is not to store information but to coordinate how info is used by phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad (Baddeley, 1996)

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Attention controller - it determines how attention is focused on a specific task, how it is divided between two tasks, and how it switches between tasks.

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Relate to executive attention Is important in situations such as when a person is attempting to simultaneously drive and use a cell phone. [coordinate phonological loop -> talking on phone understanding conversation, sketch pad processes -> visualising landmarks, and the layout of the streets, navigating the car]

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Ability to control attention

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Patients with frontal damage have problems controlling their attention. Behavioural -> preservation (page 183)

Episodic Buffer - added into Baddeley new model of working memory. - Can store information (thereby providing capacity) and is connected to LTM (thereby making interchange between working memory and LTM possible) - Represents a way of increasing storage capacity and communicating with LTM

Analyse neurological case studies to determine LTM functions

discuss the distinction between STM and LTM (page 200) - By measuring a function called Serial Position Curve - serial position curve demonstrates how the information presented earlier may be transferred to LTM while the more recent information remains in STM. - Serial position curve - using words recalling experiment. ● Primacy Effect - More likely to recall words presented at the beginning of a sequence. This could be due to participants had time to rehearse the words at the beginning and transfer them to LTM. The first word receives 100% of the participant’s attention. Attention spreads over 2 words and more = less rehearsal for the later words. ● Recency Effect - better memory for the stimuli present at the end of a sequence easy to remember. However, no recency effect occurs if memory recall is delayed (etc. count backwards for 30 secs before recalling the words)

Discuss coding in memory Coding: refers to the form in which stimuli are represented. Compare how the information is encoded by the two systems: (Page201) - Visual coding (coding in the mind in the form of a visual image) - Auditory coding (coding in the mind in the form of a sound) - Semantic coding (coding in the mind in terms of meaning)

STM Coding VS LTM Coding (page 203)

**Semantic coding in LTM- specific wording may be forgotten but the general meaning can be remembered. Classical Interference Theory Proactive interference - prior information disrupts the retention of new information Retroactive interference - new information disrupts the retention of the prior information E,g I remembered what I ate earlier this morning, but I cannot remember what I ate last week. Release from proactive interference - recalling words from a different category, the built up of proactive interference is absent, thus performance increase. Etc able to recall more words from this category compared to the other 4 categories of words. (page 201)

Distinguish the components of long-term memory (LTM) - Explicit VS Implicit - Episodic VS Semantic Distinctions between Episodic and Sementic Memory (page 206) - Episodic memory (memory for experience) - Semantic memory (memory for facts)

Why Episodic memory will blur out over time? - When you encounter a first event or something that is not frequent, you tend to remember it as a single event that is not mixed with how you perceive the world. However, when we go through many things of that event, we form enough schemas from the existing knowledge we have about the world. Therefore, the more you go through each episode, the more it would store as your regular event that you remember about the world, which is no longer special. As such, episodic memory tend to fade over time if you keep experiencing the same event. - For example, you can remember what you ate earlier on but you cannot remember what you ate last week.

Semanticization of remote memories- the remember responses decreased much more than know responses, meaning that memories for 40 to 50 years old events had lost much of their episodic character (loss of episodic detail for memories of long-ago events). Short-term semanticization - you remember what you did earlier today or yesterday but you forget about the things you did last week.. Semanticization of remote memories: e.g you acquire knowledge about Singapore history in class when you are in Primary 3. Immediately after learning this knowledge, you might have found it easy to remember what was going on in class, including what the classroom looked like and what your teacher is saying and so on. Remembering all these details = episodic memory Facts about Singapore history is semantic memory. Many years later, your semantic memory about Singapore history still remains but the episodic details/information about what was happening on the specific day (in class) were probably be gone. Semantic memories is initially attained through personal experiences that are the basis of episodic memories but the memory for those experiences often fade, but only semantic memory (knowledge) remains.

Explicit memories (page 214) - Memories we are aware of (conscious). - Consist of two types of memory: Episodic & Semantic memory Implicit memories - Memories we are unaware of (not conscious) - Occurs when learning from experience is not accompanied by conscious remembering. E.g we can’t really explain how we do those things such as swimming or cycling bicycle. - Its use is reflected in situations where we are not aware of the earlier experience that is affecting later behaviour.

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Consist of: Procedural memory & Priming & Conditioning

Procedural memory - skilled memory (memory for doing things involve learned skills) E.g The ability to trace the star in the mirror/ Know how to ride a bicycle Case study: Schacter's golf partner could not remember that he had just had his turn and would constantly complain that he wanted his turn. Despite not being able to remember something that he had done just moments ago, he still knew how to tee off which showed that his procedural memory was intact as the skills involved in playing golf would be stored in procedural memory. Procedural memory - Tying shoe laces - Phone number on number pad - Touch-typing - Putting on earrings Priming Effects - occurs when the presentation of one stimulus (the priming stimulus) change the way a person responds to another stimulus (the test stimulus). - Repetition priming - Conceptual priming - Propaganda effect Repetition priming:

we might be able to deduce that it can be a wine glass when we saw (a). However, for anterograde amnesic patients, this task is not easy. Anterograde amnesia refers to the condition where new memories can't be formed. Memory span in such patients tends to be short. New events are not transferred to LTM. So no matter how many times we present these to such patients, they are unable to tell what the item is by looking at (a) or (b), simply because they can't remember ever seeing it before. So every presentation would be like a fresh new presentation to them. However, what researchers found was that when these anterograde amnesic patients were repeatedly presented with the same test over days, they appeared to show an improvement in performance. This is credited to the procedure called Repetition Priming where the initial presentation of the stimulus affects the person's response involving the same stimulus when it is presented later. This improvement in performance is a result of implicit memory at play.

Conceptual priming E.g. when you are task to recall 1 list of words, then 1 hour later another list of words. However, you seemed to recognise that the 2 words in list #2 were the same as list #1. That's because you saw these two words in the previous slide and they had been primed which make them easier to identify in this task.

Propaganda effect Perfect and Askew (1994) conducted an experiment. Participants gave higher ratings to advertisements that were in the magazine. However, only 2.8% of the 25 advertisements from the magazine were recognised when they did a recognition test. This shows that even though the participants could hardly recognise the advertisements that were in the magazine, they still gave them higher ratings. This was presented as evidence supporting the idea that events outside of our conscious awareness can influence our behaviour. In this case, the participants gave higher ratings for advertisements they didn't remember seeing in the magazine. **How implicit memory can affect or influence on our behaviour without us realising it! Retrograde Amnesia - unable to recall events that occurred before the onset of amnesia

apply memory theories to explain memory errors explain how memory is encoded in LTM infer how memory is retrieved from LTM based on encoding procedures Encoding: Getting information into LTM Number of ways to get information into LTM 1) Maintenance rehearsal - repeating information over and over again but without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information. [results in poor memory] 2) Elaborative rehearsal - remembering the information by considering meaning or making connections to other information. [results in better memory] Memory processing (encoding & retrieval) - Encoding specificity principle and levels of processing theory usually go together!!]

Encoding specificity principle - retrieval is best when the context during encoding matches the context at retrieval Example: Angela encoded many experienced within the context of her grandpa’s house. When she reinstated this context by returning to the house many years later, she remembered many of these experiences. Example: You cannot remember why you walked over to the kitchen, then you return to your bedroom and immediately remembered you wanted to get a cup of coffee. Levels of processing theory - anything encoded through deep processing will be remembered better than those encoded under shallow processing Levels of Processing Theory (Fergus Craik & Robert Lockhart, 1972) (LOP) Memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives. 1) Shallow processing - involves a little attention to meaning. Etc just repeating the phone number over and over or attention is focused on a word’s physical features such as if it is printed in lower or upper case. 2) Deep processing - involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an item’s meaning and its relationship to something else. (the encoding part is deep) According to levels of processing theory, deep processing results in better memory than shallow processing (Craik, 2002). ** The encoding part has to be deep, for a deep level of processing to take place! Exams, at work, listening to lectures… etc LOP: Learning Phrase (encoding) LOP: Testing Phrase (retrieval) **Effective studying (page 233)

Everyday Memory 1) Autobiographical memory 2) Flashbulb memory Autobiographical memory - memory for specific experiences from our life which can include both episodic and semantic components. ● Autobiographical book - Michelle Obama wrote a book about her life from her own memory.

● Autobiographical memory of a childhood birthday party at MacDonald’s might include images of cake, people at the party, games being played (episodic memory); it might also include knowledge about when the party occurred, where your family was living at that time and general knowledge about what usually happens in birthday parties (semantic memory). ● Two characteristics: they are multidimensional and we remember some events in our lives better than others. ● Visual experiences play an important role in autobiographical memory

Discuss whether or not flashbulb memory is a special mechanism and provide empirical evidence Flashbulb memory - refers to memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an event, NOT memory for the event itself. (page 266) ● Vivid and detailed memories of dramatic events that happened, not experienced by oneself, then you learn about it/to people. So it's about your experience listening where were you, who told you that and how did you learn about it and how did you feel about it that you remembered. ● Is more vivid than other regular memory. ● Flashbu...