Philosophy, Psychology, Research, and Theories PDF

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Philosophy and Stuff - 1 Philosophy, Psychology, Research, and Theories By Andrew P. Johnson Minnesota State University, Mankato [email protected] www.OPDT-Johnson.com This is an excerpt from my book: Education Psychology: Theories of Learning and Human Development (2014). National Science Pre...

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Philosophy, Psychology, Research, and Theories Andrew Johnson

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PhilosoPhy, Psychology, ReseaRch, and TheoRies By Andrew P. Johnson Minnesota State University, Mankato [email protected] www.OPDT-Johnson.com

This is an excerpt from my book: Education Psychology: Theories of Learning and Human Development (2014). National Science Press: www.nsspress.com

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY So let’s start with the big picture. What is the purpose of schools in our society? Why do societies invest so many resources into educating their young? Yes, we teach so that students will learn, but to what end? What is the point? Of what benefit and to whom is a well educated public? These kind questions have to do with the philosophy of education. (A philosophy is a set of principles based on one’s values and beliefs that are used to guide one's behavior.) These kinds of questions greatly affect how we educate students yet, they do not get asked nearly enough. Below is a list of possible reasons for educating young humans. You will most likely find that it is hard to select just one; instead, there seems to be a variety of reasons or purposes. Figure 1.1. Reasons for educating our young. The purpose of education is to . . . 1. train students to get jobs and support their families. 2. develop skilled workers to keep our economy running and sustain our way of life. 3. develop students’ creativity, reasoning, and problem-solving abilities. 4. give students a body of knowledge and a set of skills. 5. develop good citizens who are able to participate in democratic societies. 6. preserve traditional values and our way of life. 7. promote individual growth of each student and ultimately society. 8. develop caring and compassionate human beings who are able to nurture self, others, and the environment. 9. improve society and the human condition. 10. perpetuate Western culture and tradition. 11. help students discover their unique talents and develop their full potential as human beings. 12. enable students to think critically and free themselves from bias, and misperceptions. 13. develop human beings who are nurturing and compassionate. 14. promote traditional values. 15. enable students to become agents of change in regards to self, institutions, societies, and the global village.

When functioning at its highest, it is my belief that education should help to help each © Andrew Johnson, Ph.D. Minnesota State University, Mankato www.OPDT-Johnson.com

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person reach his or her full potential. This belief is based on my personal philosophy. From this perspective, a school’s fundamental purpose is the creation of better human beings, which occurs through self-actualization and self-transcendence (Maslow, 1971). Its short term goal then is to bring people, societies, and the global community to a higher place. A higher place defined here as a state where individuals have the knowledge, skills and dispositions necessary for them to nurture themselves, others, and the environment and an inclination for them to act upon their worlds in productive yet responsible ways. Its long term goal is the continued evolution of human consciousness and the global society. Even though your educational philosophy may not be clearly defined, it is the basis for everything you do as a teacher (DeCarvalho, 1991). It guides your decision making, influences how you perceive and understand new information, and determines your goals and beliefs (Gutek, 2004). An educational philosophy outlines what you believe to be the purpose of education, the role of the student in education, and the role of the teacher. It asks the following kinds of questions: Why do we educate people? How should we educate people? How does education affect society? How does education affect humanity? Who benefits from a particular type of education? What ethical guidelines should be used? What traits should be valued? Why type of thinking is of worth? How should we come to know the world and make decisions? What is the educational ideal? What is the natural of reality? What do we believe to be true in regards to knowledge and truth? How do we come to know? What do you believe to be true in regards to humans and human learning? Using the Internet • Do an Internet search using the terms: education-philosophy or educational-philosophy.

It is beyond the scope of this book to delve further into educational philosophy; however, two points: First, your educational philosophy will continue to change and evolve throughout your career. This is a good thing. With new knowledge and experience comes change. Second, there is no such thing as the “correct” philosophy. Effective teachers and people of good character often have differing educational philosophies. This also is a good thing as it leads to continued reflection, dialogue, and refinement. To insist that others adopt or conform to your philosophy is a form of domination and control, traits not valued in a democratic society. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Educational psychology is the study of how people learn. It uses psychological concepts and research methods to understand teaching, learning, and human development (Berliner, 2006). Guy Lefrancois (1994) describes it as a study of human behavior in an education setting. It includes topics such as memory, thinking, human development, learning behaviors, motivation, individual differences, intelligence, creativity, teaching strategies, and assessment. Within the domain of educational psychology there are a variety of theories that describe how humans develop, how they learn, and how they should be taught. Theories are derived from research. Research then is the basis of educational psychology. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Effective teachers and administrators use educational research and research-based theory to determine which strategies and teaching practices are effective (Creswell, 2005; Zemelman, © Andrew Johnson, Ph.D. Minnesota State University, Mankato www.OPDT-Johnson.com

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Daniels, & Hyde, 2005). Thus, it is important that you understand some of the basics of educational research (McMillan, 2004). Research is the process of asking questions and using data to answer these questions (Johnson, 2007). Data are collected using some type of objective, systematic procedure called a scientific method. There are a variety of scientific methods used to study teaching and learning; however, these methods tend to be put into two broad categories: experimental research and descriptive research. Experimental Research You are most likely familiar with experimental research. Here the researcher sets up an observation or experiment to figure out what the effect of a particular approach or treatment (the variable) might be. In order to make an accurate prediction or to say that one thing caused another, the researcher creates an artificial environment that isolates a particular variable by controlling all the extraneous variables. That is, everything is the same in two or more groups or situations except the thing researchers wants to find out about. Some important terms in understanding experimental research follow: 1. The independent variable is the approach or treatment that the researcher manipulates to determine a particular effect. It is what is done or not done to a group of people, animals, plants, or things. 2. The dependent variable is the particular result or the effect of the treatment. An easy way to remember the distinction between these two variables is to think of the dependent variable as depending on the treatment or independent variable. 3. The treatment group or experimental group is the group of subjects, participants, or objects that are exposed to the particular treatment (independent variable). 4. The control group is a group as similar as possible in all characteristics to the treatment group; however, this group is not exposed to the particular treatment so that a comparison can be made. 5. Random groupings is in an experimental study is the assignment of subjects to either treatment or control group. In order to be a true experiment there must be randomized assignment to groups. However, because of ethical reasons, random assignment to groups is often not possible. (You cannot without treatment simply to study its effects.) Thus, in education the quasi-experimental method is most often used. 6. The quasi-experimental method is the experimental method without randomized assignment to groups. 7. The research question is the specific question the researcher is trying to answer. 8. The hypothesis is a tentative statement that can be supported if the outcome of the experimentation is as expected. 9. A theory is an interrelated set of facts or concepts that are used to explain a body of data. As an example of an experimental study, Dr. Josephine Smith wanted to see if Method X, a new reading strategy, would improve students’ ability to comprehend. She set out to test the hypothesis: Method X will improve primary-aged students’ ability to comprehend expository text. Her research question was this: Will Method X help primary-aged students comprehend expository text? To test her hypothesis she enlisted ten elementary schools to take part in her study. As a control group, five schools did not use Method X. For her treatment group (sometimes call the experimental group), five schools used Method X. Method X was the independent variable in this study. Dr. Smith gave a reading comprehension test before the experiment started (pre-test measure), to show that the two groups were relatively equal. She © Andrew Johnson, Ph.D. Minnesota State University, Mankato www.OPDT-Johnson.com

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then introduced Method X (the treatment), for three months in the schools in her treatment group. This comprehension text was the dependent variable used to compare the two groups after the treatment. She found that students in her treatment group had scores that were significantly higher than those in her control group. Thus, her hypothesis was supported by the data. Descriptive Research One of the problems with controlled environments used in experimental research in education is that they are controlled and therefore, not real (Eisner, 1998). Instead of trying to manipulate conditions and create an artificial environment so that variables can be isolated, descriptive research examines and describes the world as it is (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). It looks at existing numbers, groups, or conditions without manipulating them. Three types of descriptive research are described here: correlational research, causal-comparative research, and qualitative research. Correlational research. Correlational research uses statistical procedures to determine whether and to what degree two things are related. For example, there is a strong correlation (or co-relation) between the amount of studying students do before an exam and the scores that they earn. As the amount of their study time goes up, so do their exam scores. As the amount of their study time decreases so too do their exam scores. An increase or decrease in one thing seems to be related to a similar increase or decrease in another thing. This is called a positive correlation. A negative correlation is when an increase in one thing seems to be related to a decrease in another. For example, an increase in amount of partying with friends done by students seems to be related to a decrease in their scores on exams. A word of warning here: Correlation does not indicate causation. Just because two variables are related, we cannot say that one causes the other. There may be other variables that have not been accounted for. For example, there is a strong correlation between water temperature and people drowning. As water temperature goes up, so too do the number of people who drown. But you cannot say that water temperature causes drowning as more people tend to be in the water when it is warmer. And when the water gets really cold ice forms. Few people seem to drown on ice-covered lakes. You can find many examples in the popular media of people (usually with a political agenda) who misuse correlational research by trying to attribute cause and effect. A common misuse is to try to link a decrease in any type of test scores with an increase or decrease in the issue of the day such as: Internet usage, video games, family values, teachers unions, teaching of traditional values, gay marriage, phonics instruction, whole language, prayer in school, or saying the Pledge of Allegiance. Causal–comparative research. Causal–comparative research compares groups in order to find a cause for differences in measures or scores. For example, if a principal was interested in looking at the effectiveness of a new math program, she could use causal–comparative research to make an informed decision. The math achievement scores of several schools, some of which used the new program and some of which did not, would be compared and analyzed. The independent variable would be the type of math program used. The dependent variable would be the average math scores on similar standardized tests from each school. If the schools using the new math program demonstrated higher test scores, and these differences in scores were statistically significant, it would be reasonable to assume that the new math program may be more effective than traditional methods. Qualitative research. Qualitative research uses systematic observations in order to understand a phenomenon, condition, or situation. Examples of qualitative researchers include © Andrew Johnson, Ph.D. Minnesota State University, Mankato www.OPDT-Johnson.com

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Charles Darwin observing the origins of species on the Galapagos Islands, Jane Goodall studying gorillas in the wild, or Maria Montessori observing how children learn in classrooms. Examples of data collection in a qualitative research might include interviews, structured observations, surveys, checklists, samples of dialogue, audio or video recordings, student or school records, artifacts, case studies, products, performances, or field notes. As an example of a qualitative study, Dr. Samuel Jones wanted to understand how kindergarten students develop the ability to read and write. He noticed that in some kindergarten classrooms, literate behaviors (reading and writing) seemed to emerge without formalized, systematic instruction. The purpose of his research was to understand this emergent literacy process and discover what might account for these behaviors. For his study he first identified a variety of kindergarten classrooms in which these behaviors emerged. Then he spent several months observing, taking notes, talking with students, and talking with teachers. Finally, he reviewed his data looking for patterns and commonalities. Based on his inquiry he discovered that students in these classrooms were immersed in authentic literacy experiences. That is, they were encouraged to read and write for real purposes first; then given small bits of instruction as they were are ready for it. This was different from traditional classrooms where students were asked to master a set of literacy sub-skills, read very structured texts, and write only in very limited ways. So which research method is the best? Answer: the research method that best answers your question. Different kinds of questions call for different kinds of research design. One of the big ideas to take from this chapter is that research should be used to inform your teaching practice. THEORIES IN EDUCATION In the chapters that follow you will be reading about a variety of theories related to teaching, learning, and human development. As stated above, educational research is used to create theories. Theories help to organize relevant empirical facts in order to create a context for understanding phenomena (empirical means they can be observed or measured). Theories are then used as the basis for designing educational programs, policies, and practices. A theory is a way to explain a set of facts. Put another way, if reality were a dot-to-dot picture, a theory would be a way to connect a set of data dots (see Figure 1.3.) However, varying theories connect different data dots in different ways resulting in a wide variety of pictures and practices. Thus, different theoretical perspectives can advocate different practices or practical notions even though each is based on a set of empirical data. An example of this would be behavioral learning theory and cognitive learning theory, both of which are based on solid empirical evidence and can be used to inform your teaching practice. Figure 1.3. Theories connecting data dots. •

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© Andrew Johnson, Ph.D. Minnesota State University, Mankato www.OPDT-Johnson.com

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Summary of Key Ideas • Your teaching philosophy is the basis for everything you do in education. • Research is used to build the theories described in educational psychology. • There are many different kinds of research or scientific methods. • Educational research should be used to inform your teaching practice. • Theories are used to organize and explain a set of facts, which are then used to design educational policies and practices.

© Andrew Johnson, Ph.D. Minnesota State University, Mankato www.OPDT-Johnson.com

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References Berliner, D.C. (2006). Educational psychology: Search for essence throughout a century of influence. In P. Alexander & P. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Inc. Publishers. Creswell, J. (2005). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Education, Inc. DeCarvalho, R.J.(1991). The humanistic paradigm in education. The Humanistic Psychologist (19), 88-104. Eisner, E. (1998). The enlightened eye: Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Fraenkel, J. & Wallen, N. (2003). How to design and evaluate research in education (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Gutek, G. (2004). Philosophical and ideological voices in education. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Johnson, A. (2007). A short guide to action research (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Lefrancois, G.R. (1994). Psychology for teaching (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company McMillan, J. (2004) Educational research: Fundamental for the consumer (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Zemelman, S., Daniels, H. & Hyde, A. (2005). Best practice: Today’s standards for teaching and learning in America’s schools (3rd. ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

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