PHLE- Module-1 PDF

Preview

Summary

MODULE 1 INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL& MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY ORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL& MEDICINAL CHEMISTRYGENERAL CHEMISTRYORGANIC CHEMISTRYORGANIC MEDICINAL CHEMISTRYINORGANIC CHEMISTRYINORGANIC COMPOUNDSOther Laws of Chemical Changes: Law of Conservation of Mass In a chemical reaction...

Description

MODULE 1

 INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL & MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY  ORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL & MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY

GENERAL CHEMISTRY ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ORGANIC MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

GENERAL CHEMISTRY Chemistry  the study of matter Matter  anything that occupies space & has mass (1) composition (2) structure (3) changes that matter undergoes (4) energy involved in such changes  composed predominantly of atoms, molecules, ions  interconvertible w/ energy ▪ Mass  refers to the amount of matter present in the material ▪ Weight  Mass x pull of gravity Units of Measurement Fundamental Quantity SI Unit - Length - Meter (m) - Mass - Kilogram (kg) - Time - Seconds (sec) - Temperature - Kelvin (K) Properties of Matter (1) Intensive/ Intrinsic  mass independent  are characteristics of any sample of the substance regardless of the shape or size of the sample Examples: *Density *Melting point *pH *Freezing point *Color *Sublimation temperature *Concentration *Optical activity *Boiling point (2) Extensive/ Extrinsic  mass dependent Examples: *Volume *Weight *Pressure *Heat content *Temperature Changes that Matter undergoes: (1)Physical Change  change in phase (2)Chemical Change  in both intrinsic & extrinsic properties Evidences of Chemical Change: *Evolution of Gas *Formation of a precipitate *Emission of light *Generation of Electricity *Production of Mechanical Energy *Absorption/liberation of Heat Physical State/ Phase a. solid  (lowest) b. liquid c. gas  (highest) d. Plasma  aka “Mesophase”, “Liquid Crystals”  has solid like properties  resemble those of a crystal in the formation of loosely ordered molecular arrays similar to a regular crystalline lattice & anisotropic refraction of light -Crystal lattice  ordered arrangement of atoms -flow properties -LCD  liquid crystal display Two main types of Liquid Crystals: -Smectic (soap- or grease-like) -Nematic (thread-like) Six Distict Crystal System: 1. Cubic (sodium chloride) 2. Tetragonal (urea) 3. Hexagonal (iodofrom) 4. Rhombic (iodine) 5. Monoclinic (sucrose) 6. Triclinic (boric Acid)

Composition/Constituents: Matter Pure Elements

Compounds Law of Definite Proportion

Impure/ Mixture Homogenous

Heterogenous

Solution Suspension Colloids

Law of Multiple Proportion Classification of Matter: ▪ Element simplest form of matter 1 kind of material or atom  has definite chemical composition  cannot be decomposed by simple physical/ chemical means into two or more different substances ▪ Compound  substance composed of two or more elements unites chemically in definite proportion cannot be changed into sipler substance under normal laboratory conditions Law of Definite  Elements combined in fixed ratios of Proportions whole numbers to form compounds  states that the elemental composition of a pure compound is always the same regardless  same w/ Law Constant Composition Law of Multiple Elements combined in different ratios of whole numbers to form different Proportions compounds ▪ Mixture  composed of two or more elements/ substances which are not chemically combined Classification of Mixture ▪ Heterogenous  two or more distinct phases ▪ Homogenous only one phase or single phase -Solution uniform mixture composed of solute & solvent wherein atoms, molecules or ions of the substance become dispersed -Suspension  homogenous dispersion insoluble in a liquid aka Coarse Mixture  finely divided solid materials distributed in a liquid -Colloids contain particles bigger than those in solutions but smaller that those in suspension particle of solute are not broken down to the size of the molecules but are small dispersed throughout the medium.  exhibit the light scattering effect Properties of Colloids 1. Tyndall Effect  light scattering effect 2. Brownian Movement  zigzag movement of colloidal particles 3. Electrically charge Electrophoresis  Gel-electrophoresis SDS-PAGE (used to separate protein & nucleic acids) -Cathode (  ) reduction takes place -Anode (+) oxidation takes place 4. Adsorption

Other Laws of Chemical Changes: Law of  In a chemical reaction, the total mass of Conservation of reactant is equal to the total mass of Mass products or mass is neither created nor destroyed in any transformation of matter.  by Antoine Van Lavoisier Physical Changes/ Phase Transformation

Changes of State: 1. Melting  from solid to liquid, usually caused by heating. 2. Solidification  from liquid to solid of a substance which is a solid at room temperature & atmospheric pressure. 3. Freezing  from liquid to solid, caused by cooling a liquid. 4. Boiling  from liquid to gaseous (vapor) at a temperature called boiling point. 5. Evaporation  from liquid to gaseous (vapor) due to the escape of molecule from the surface. Vapor  refers to the gaseous phase of a substance, which is normally liquid or solid at room temperature. 6. Liquefaction  from gas to liquid at a substance which is gas at room temperature & pressure. It is caused by cooling & increasing pressure. 7. Condensation  from gaseous to liquid, of a substance which is a liquid at room temperature & pressure. It is naturally caused by cooling. 8. Sublimation from solid to gaseous on heating, & from gaseous directly to solid on cooling. 9. Deposition  direct transition from vapor state to the solid state Process of Separating Components of Mixture: 1. Decantation  Difference in Specific Gravity 2. Distillation  Evaporation & then condensation 3. Magnetic separation  for metals 4. Sorting  mechanical separation; darbling 5. Filtration  solid to liquid 6. Centrifugation  speeding up of settling process of a precipitate 7. Functional Crystallization  lowering of temperature so that the more insoluble component crystallizes out first. 9. Chromatography  difference in solvent affinity  Process involved in Chemical Change: 1. Combustion  chemical union of oxygen w/ another substance 2. Reduction  oxygen is removed from compound or H is added 3. Neutralization  acid reacts with a base to form salt & water 4. Hydrolysis  reaction of water on a salt forming an acid and base Rate of Hydrolysis depends on: pH of the solution Temperature

5. Saponification  a reaction between an alkali & fats/ oils forming soap & glycerol 6. Fermentation  action of bacterial/ microorganism on organic substances resulting to the production of alcohol. Nuclear Change  chance in the structure of properties, composition of the nucleus of an atom resulting I \n the transmutation of the element into another element Nuclear Fission  splitting of a heavy atom Nuclear Fusion  union of 2 light atoms to form a bigger molecule. Types of Chemical Reactions: (a) Direct Union/ Synthesis/ Composition  involves the formation of elements Combustion  chemical combination with oxygen Metal oxides = basic Nonmetal oxides = acidic (b) Decomposition/ Analysis  breakdown of complex substances into simpler substance. Electrolysis  causing chemical change by passing electricity through conducting solution Ex: H2O  electrolysis H2 + O2 (c) Single Replacement: A + BC  B + AC Na + HCl  H2  + NaCl Li  most reactive metal Li + NaCl  Na + LiCl Na + LiCl   Au  least reactive metal (d) Double displacement/ Metathesis: AB + CD  AD + CB Ex: NaCL + AgNO3  AgCl + NaNO3 Neutralization  the reaction between acid & a base to form salt & water a. Acid + Base  Salt + Water b. Metal Oxide + Acid  Salt + Water c. Nonmetal Oxide + Base  Salt + Water d. Metal Oxide + Nonmetal Oxide  Salt e. Ammonia + Acid  Ammonium salt (e) Redox Oxidation Reduction “VI LEORA” “VD LEORA”  Half reactive which  Gain of Electrons involve loss of electrons

oxidation state/   oxidation state/ valence valence  Removal of  Removal of Oxygen; hydrogen; Addition Addition of Oxygen of Oxygen  Reducing Agent  Oxidizing Agent Ex: Na  Na + e Ex: Cl2 + 2e  2Cl MnO4 (violet/ pink)  acidic Mn2+ (colorless/discoloration)  basic/ neutral MnO2  (brown ppt) 

Structure of Atoms:  Democritus  “Matter composed of tiny particles called Atomos” Atomos  Greek word , meaning-(not to be cut or to be divided)  John Dalton  “atoms”  Theory: The Billiard Ball Model  Atom is a hard indestructible sphere.  was disproved when Subatomoc Particles discovered. -Electron () Thompson -Proton (+) Goldstein -Neutron (neutral)  Chadwick & Urey  Thompson  Model: The Raisin-bread Model The Plum-pudding Model  “An atom is a sphere of positive particles” Rutherford  disproved the Thompson’s Theory (after 5 years)  Experiment: The Gold Foil/ Film Experiment 99% passed  O> N ≉Cl) 5. Metallic Property: TB =  metallic property LR =  metallic property Nonmetallic Property: TB =  nonmetallic property LR =  nonmetallic property Metalloids  directly below the ladder are elment possessing both metallic & nonmetallic in character -Boron -Silicon -Germanium -Arsenic -Antimony -Tellurium -Polonium

Chemical Bonding: Chemical bonds= stability= e configuration as noble gas

Example: 2He

2

= 1s = noble gas: valence shell configuration 2 6 of ns np stable octet, 7 valence electrons  completely filled atomic orbitals 1. Electron Transfer  usually occur between a metal/ metalloid & a nonmetallic  metal/ metalloid + nonmetal Cation(+) + anion() = Ionic Bonding 2 2 6 1 Example: 11Na : 1s 2s 2p 3s + 2 2 6 Na : 1s 2s 2p = Ne 2 2 5 F : 1s 2s 2p + e 9 2 2 6 F : 1s 2s 2p = Ne 2. Electron Sharing  nonmetal molecules  Covalent Bonding Example: H2 = 1H + 1H 1s1 1s1 Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals  Molecular Orbitals 1. head-on  sigma () m.o./ bond lies along the line 2. lateral sideways  pi() m.o./ bond formed from overlap of p orbital -anode  a region in space where there is a zero probability of finding an electron   bond  single bonds  bond multiple bonds Sigma bonds ()  molecular orbitals are symmetrical about the bond axes. Pi bonds ()  subject to addition reaction (ex: 1-pentene) subject to addition nucleophilic (ex: Ethanal)

 similar atoms Non –polar  except for CH (still belongs) 

Covalent Bond

 equal sharing of e  dissimilar atoms Polar



 unequal sharing or e  dipole

CCl4  molecule: non polar  bond: polar H2O: Polar molecule Polar Bond

CHCl3  more polar than CCl4

 Forces of Attraction: INTRAmolecular  forces within a molecule a. Covalent Bond  made by sharing electrons -Nonpolar [Cl2, CO2, CCl2] –no significant diff. of EN -Polar [HCl, HCHO] –has significant dif. of EN b. Ionic bond  affinity between oppositely charged particles  present in salts/ ionic compounds  forces that hold ions together in the crystal lattice of a salt INTERmolecular forces hold molecules together 1. VAN DER WAALS 1. London Dispersion Forces (LDF)  aka Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole  bond between nonpolar molecules (no charges)  weakest bond 2. Dipole-dipole or Permanent Dipole  aka Keesom Orientation FOrce  operate on polar or dipole molecules  stronger than LDF 3. Dipole- Induced Dipole  aka Debye Induction Force  bond between a charged (dipole) and an uncharged particles (induced dipole) 2. Hydrogen Bonding  bond of Hydrogen with a highly electronegative atom of another molecules  special type of dipole-dipole interaction. H  attached to highly electronegative atoms (N, O, F) H-bond  D-D  LDF   relative strength 3. Ion-ion, Ion-dipole, & ion induced dipole  (+) & () interaction in the solid sate  strongest bond Solid Liquid Gas Volume Definite Definite Indefinite Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite Strength of IFA Strongest Strong Weakest (Intermolecular Ideal Gas: forced of Attraction) No IFA Molecular Motion Vibration Gliding Constant random

Kinematic Molecular Theory  explains the phases of matter based on the movement (including direction) of molecules, ions, or atoms.

Solutions  homogenous mixture of single phase system of two or more substances -Solute  lesser amounts  solid, liquid, gas -Solvent  greater amounts  liquid, solid, gas Alloys  an example of solid homogenous mixture

Factors affecting Solubility: 1. Nature of Solute & Solvent (Polarity): Like dissolve like Solubility  maximum amount of solute expressed in grams that can be dissolved in 100g of water Miscibility  ability of one substance to mix with another substance (ex: liquid-liquid; liquid-gas) 2. Temperature temp: sobility of solid in liquid temp:  solubility of a gas in liquid Exothermic  solubility: temperature Endothermic  solubility: temperature Standard Temp: 0C (273K) 3. Pressure (affects Gases only) Henry’s Law of Gas solubility  solubility of gas: pressure 2 SI unit for pressure: Pascal (N/m ) 4. Particle Size/ Surface Area particle size: surface area: solubility 5. Presence of Salts Salting-out  presence of salt decreases solubility  precipitation of an organic substance from a saturated solution when highly soluble salts. Salting in  presence of salt increases solubility *Basic or Sub salt  is prepared by: Partial hydrolysis of a normal salt Partial Neutalization of a hydroxide Types of Solution According to the Solubility of the Solute:  Saturated Solution  solution achieved the maximum solubility  Unsaturated Solution  less solvent that solute  Supersaturated Solution  more solvent that solute

Methods of Expressing Concentration of Solutions: 1. %𝑤 /𝑤 = 2. %𝑣 /𝑣 =

𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

100𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

100𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

3. %𝑤 /𝑣 = 100𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

4. 𝑚𝑔 % = 100𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 5. Molarity (M) 𝑚𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀= 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑡/𝑀𝑊 = 𝐿 6. Molality (m)  more accurate 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚= 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑡/𝑀𝑊 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑤𝑡/𝑀𝑊 = 𝐿 7. Normality (N) 𝑀𝑊 𝑤𝑡/ 𝐹 𝑁=𝑀 ×𝐹 = 𝐿

𝑀𝑊 𝑀𝑒𝑞 𝑤𝑡/ 𝐹 = 𝐿 𝐿 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑁= 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑁=

HCl : f=1 H2SO4: f=2 H2PO4: f=3 CH3COOH: f=1 NaOH: f=1 Mg (OH)2: f=2 AL(OH)3: f=3 NH3: f=1 F=total positive/ total negative charges NaCl: f=1 MgO: f=2 Ca3(PO4)2: f=6 K3C6H5O7: f=3 Oxid-agent: f=3 of e gained +

2+

MnO4 H Mn F=5

OH Mn2 F=3 Redu-agent: f=# of e lost 2+ 3+ Fe  Fe

Colligative Properties 1. Vapor Pressure Lowering  the addition of a non-volatile solute lowers the VP of the liquid  A liquid in a closed container will established an equilibrium with its vapor.  When equilibrium is reached, the vapor exerts a pressure (vapor pressure)  Volatile  exhibits vapor pressure  most use Lower Temperature Zone  Nonvolatile  no measurable vapor pressure Raoult’s Law  is applied in the determination of vapor pressure P= (1x Xsolute) P  lowering of a vapor pressure of a solvent is equal to the product of the mole fraction of the solute & vapor pressure of the solvent.  follow ideal solution  ?P=P of pure solvent x mole fraction of the solute 2. Boiling Point Elevation Boiling Point  equilibrium between the liquid & the gas, point at which the VP equals atmospheric P. 3. Freezing Point Depression Presence of salt/ solute will cause lowering of freezing point Ice cream making ?FP = kfm Freezing point of water is 0C Kf= 1.86C/m 4. Osmotic Pressure Pressure needed to prevent osmosis Osmosis  net movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution  lower to higher concentration of solute Reverse Osmosis  move under high pressure from more concentrated to less concentrated  process of water purification

Gas Laws (PV=nRT) 1. Boyle’s Law

 Volume is inversely proportional to pressure  nonlinear relation for volume & pressure

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

2. Charle’s Law

Constant: n, R, T Variable: P, V Relationship: Inverse  Volume is directly proportional to temperature (Kelvin), 273Kstandard

𝑉1 𝑉2 = 𝑇1 𝑇2

3. Avogadro’s Law

4. Combined/ Ideal Gas Law

5. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

6. Gay-Lussac’s law or Amonton’s Law 7. Clausius-Clapeyron

8. Grahams Law

Constant: P, n, R Variable: V, T Relationship: Direct  Volume is directly proportional to moles

𝑉2 𝑉1 = 𝑛1 𝑛2

Constant: P, R, T Variable: V, n Relationship: Direct 23 Avogadro’s Number: 6.02 x 10  combination of Boyle’s, Charle’s, Avogadro’s

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑛1 𝑇1 𝑛2 𝑇2

Ideal Gas  exist at STP T= OC / 273 K P= 1 atm = 760 mmHg N= 1 mol V= 22.4 L Ideal Gas Constant: R R= 0.08205 L atm/ mol k R= 8.314 J/mol k R= 1.987 cal/mol/k  State that the Pressure exerted by a mixture of gasses (non-reacting gases) is the sum of the partial pressures that each gas in the mixture exert individually  gaseous mixtures

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑐 … 𝑃𝑥

 Pressure is directly proportional to temperature, if V is constant

𝑙𝑜𝑔

𝑃2 ∆𝐻𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 𝑃1 2.303 𝑅𝑇2 𝑇1

Where: P= Pressure T= Temperature Hv = heat of vaporization R= gas constant + 8.314 J/mol K  Latent heat  heat required for phase transition to happen. -Hf  heat of fusion (S⇌ L) -Hv  heat of vaporization (L⇌ G) -Hs  heat of sublimation (S⇌ G)  The rate of the effusion of two gases (& diffusion) are inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities providing the temperature & pressure are the same for two gases.

𝑅1 𝑀𝑊1 𝑅2 𝑀𝑊2

Diffusion  gradual mixing of molecules of one gas w/ the molecules of another gas by virtue of their kinetic properties Effusion  passage of a gas under pressure through a small opening

Acids & Bases Electrolytes  Allow conductase of electricity  WEAK electrolytes: Incomplete/PartiaI dissolution Poor electric conductor  STRONG electrolytes: Strong acids & bases Complete dissolution Best electric conductor Non-Electrolytes  will not dissociate, will not conduct electricity  do not ionized in water Acid-Base Theory Arrhenius Bronsted-Lowry Lewis

ACID yield H+ proton donor e- acceptor

BASE yield OH proton acceptor e- donor

Arrhenius Theory  water ion theory of Acidity + Bronsted-Lowry  H (hydronium ion)  conjugate acid-base pairs  protonic concept + elaborated as HA H + A  natural direction of a bronsted-lowry acid-base reaction: SA+SB WA+WB +  H30  strongest acid in aqueous solution Lewis Theory  coordinate covalent bond Heavy metals + chelating agents (2or more donor atoms) EDTA -^ donor atoms Chelates (cage-like structures) Coordinate Covalent Bond  interaction wherein both lectrons in the bond arise from a single orbital on one of the atoms forming the bond. 1. SA + SB  neutral salt HCl + NaOH  NaCl +H2O 2. SA + WB  acidic salt HCl + NH4OH  NH4Cl + H2O 3. WA + SB basic salt CH3COOH + NaOH  NaCH3COO + H2O 4. WA+WB  neutral, acidic, basic salt CH3COOH + NH4OH  NH4CH4COO + H20 kA = kB  neutal kA>kB  acidic salt kA7.0 basic= pH >7.0, pOH 14 value is possible as well.  Protolysis  a process whereby a proton is transferred from one molecule to another.  Autoprotolysis  a process whereby there is a transfer of a proton from one molecule to another identical molecule.  Amphoteric  properly where a substance can act either as acid or base. Henderson- Hasselbalch equation pH = pka h log [salt]/[acid] or pH = pka=log [conjugate base]/[base] Isohydric  a solution having the same pH as the standard solution. B. Buffer Capacity  ability/ degree (magnitude) of a buffer solution to resist changes in pH upon addition of acid/alkali depends on the amount of the acid & the base from which the buffer can neutralize before pH begins to change to an appreciable degree Van slyke  was responsible for a quantitative expression  amount in g/l of strong acid or a strong base required to be added to a solution to change its pH by 1 unit.  higher buffer capacity, lower change in pH.

Pearson’s HSAB principle:...